Evaluating Bioactive Compounds in Medicinal Plants: A Case Study of Trichilia monadelpha (Meliaceae) | Chapter 5 | Chemical and Materials Sciences: Research Findings Vol. 6

 

Oxidative stress contributes to numerous degenerative diseases, making plant-derived antioxidants increasingly valuable for therapeutic applications. This study evaluated the phytochemical composition and antioxidant potential of Trichilia monadelpha leaf extracts, a West African tree with reported medicinal properties. Leaves were extracted using maceration with n-hexane and methanol solvents, yielding 2.4% and 3.2% respectively.  Phytochemical screening revealed that the methanolic extract contained alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, and terpenoids, while the n-hexane extract contained alkaloids, terpenoids, and cardiac glycosides. Antioxidant activity was assessed at four concentrations (0.25–2.0 mg/mL) using DPPH radical scavenging, ferric reducing antioxidant power, and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays, with vitamin C as the standard. The methanolic extract showed clear, concentration-dependent antioxidant activity across all assays. Its DPPH IC₅₀ value was 2.584 mg/L compared with 1.907 mg/L for vitamin C, and similar dose-dependent trends were observed in the reducing and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays, although with lower potency than the standard. Pearson’s correlation indicated a stronger association between phytochemical content and antioxidant activity in the methanolic extract (r = 0.951). The n-hexane extract displayed minimal activity (r = 0.560).

 

T. monadelpha leaves, especially the methanolic extract, contain bioactive constituents with measurable antioxidant effects, supporting their traditional use and highlighting the need for further isolation and characterisation of the active compounds.

 

Author(s) Details

P. D. Clark
Department of Chemistry, Edwin Clark University, Kiagbodo, Delta State, Nigeria.

 

E. Omo-Udoyo
Department of Chemistry, Edwin Clark University, Kiagbodo, Delta State, Nigeria.

 

Please see the book here :- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/cmsrf/v6/6791

 

Effects of Acacia Gums Enriched with Gallic Acid and Clove Oil on Physicochemical and Physiological Changes of Solanum lycopersicum during Storage | Chapter 5 | Food Science and Agriculture: Research Highlights Vol. 4

 

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an annual herbaceous crop with berries that belongs to the Solanaceae family. It produces fruits of various sizes and shapes with a smooth epicarp. It originated as wild forms in the Peru-Ecuador-Bolivia area of South America. It is among the perishable horticultural products affected by the postharvest practices during the production chain. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of acacia gums incorporated with gallic acid and clove oil on physiological and physicochemical changes in tomatoes during storage at different treatment ratios and storage conditions. Fresh tomato fruits, harvested at the ripening stage, were collected from the Iringa municipal market. Gum Arabic particles were collected from Acacia trees in the Iringa region. Whereby treatment solutions made of acacia gum incorporated with gallic Acid and clove oil in combination ratios of T1 (0:0:100), T2 (0.5:0.5:100), T3 (1.0:1.0:98), and T4 (1.5:1.5:97) as gallic acid, clove oil, and acacia gum solution, respectively, were used as organic coatings to preserve tomatoes. Samples of 120 coated tomatoes per treatment were then left to dry at ambient temperature, followed by storage at ambient, in the cold room (16°C), and in a refrigerator (8°C) for observation for 35 days of the experiment. The Diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical degradation method was used to estimate the antioxidant activity. The firmness of all fruit samples was measured with a fruit Texture analyser Brookfield model CT3 10K (0-50 Kgf). All the data were interpreted by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Duncan’s multiple-range test using the SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics version 26) software package for expressing the statistical significance. From the results, it was observed that the antioxidant activity percentage was increased from a value of 19.66±0.000 % to 42.77±5.436 % on average within the initial 14 days of storage; thereafter, it started decreasing. Meanwhile, the firmness of the tomatoes was maintained until 28 days of storage, after which it started changing due to respiration. Treatment T3 (1.0:1.0:98) performed well in maintaining the firmness of tomato fruits in all storage conditions compared to treatments T1 (0:0:100), T2 (0.5:0.5:98), and T4 (1.5:1.5:97), with an average maximum firmness of T3 (0.24±0.00 N/mm), T1 (0.17±0.00 N/mm), T2 (0.20 ±0.00N/mm), and T4 (0.21±0.00 N/mm), respectively. This indicates the best quality attribute towards the marketability for preserving the shape and size of the tomato fruits when it comes to shelf life and customer perception. The study concluded that post-harvest treatments containing a mixture of Acacia gum, gallic acid, and clove oil indicated significant effectiveness in preserving the quality of tomato fruits compared to a solution of only acacia gum in all storage conditions.

 

 

Author(s) Details

Isaka Gerald Barongereje
Department of Food Science and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, The Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Chuo Kikuu Morogoro, Tanzania.

 

V.C.K Silayo
Department of Food Science and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, The Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Chuo Kikuu Morogoro, Tanzania.

 

Rashid A. Suleiman
Department of Food Science and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, The Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Chuo Kikuu Morogoro, Tanzania.

 

Please see the book here :- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/fsarh/v4/6260

Chemistry of Depsides from Manglicolous lichen Dirinaria consimilis (Stirton) D.D. Awasthi along with their Pharmacological Insights | Chapter 1 | Innovations in Biological Science Vol. 4

 

This book chapter provides a thorough examination of the isolation process, structural characterization, and pharmacological properties of two novel depsides, Antarvedisides A and B, extracted from Dirinaria consimilis (Stirton) D.D. Awasthi, alongside several known depsides. The study explores the compounds' structural features and delves into their pharmacological profile, emphasizing their potential as promising candidates for future drug development. Chromatographic examination of acetone extract of D. consimilis yielded Antarvedisides A and B, sekikaic acid, atranorin, divaricatic acid and 2’-O-methyl divaricatic acid. Antioxidant activity assessment through superoxide, DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays reveals that Antarvedisides A-B and 2’-O-Methyldivaricatic acid exhibit remarkable antiradical scavenging capacities, surpassing the standard drug, ascorbic acid. The investigation extends to in vitro anti-inflammatory activity, where atranorin exhibits superior inhibition against protein denaturation in comparison to the standard drug indomethacin. Antarvedisides A-B showcases moderate anti-inflammatory activity, further detailed with IC50 values ranging from 878-600 µg/mL. The anticancer potential of the depsides is highlighted through the Sulforhodamine B assay screening. Antarvediside B emerges as a potent inhibitor of cell growth in MCF-7 and HeLa, outperforming doxorubicin. Additionally, 2’-O-methyldivaricatic acid demonstrates significant inhibitory profiles against various cancer cell lines. In conclusion, this abstract summarizes the comprehensive pharmacological profile of Antarvedisides A and B, shedding light on their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. These findings underscore the potential of these depsides as valuable candidates for further drug development and contribute to the expanding knowledge of natural compounds with therapeutic implications.

 

 

Author(s) Details

Vinay Bharadwaj Tatipamula

Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Girija Sastry Vedula

Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/rdcbr/v3/12824F

Qualitative Study on the Phytochemical Constituents and Antioxidant Activity Determination of the Flower Buds of Bauhinia variegate | Chapter 8 | Pharmaceutical Science: New Insights and Developments Vol. 7

Bauhinia variegata is a species of flowering plant belonging to the family ‘Fabaceae’, which is native to Southeast Asia, Southern China, Pakistan and India. This is a popular ornamental tree in sub-tropical and tropical climates. Almost all the parts of the tree Bauhinia variegata are used pharmacologically as in obesity, bleeding piles, worms, cough, inflammatory skin diseases, balancing activity of thyroxin production, haematuria, dysuria, anti-ulcer, menorrhagia and goitre and many others.

 

The objective of the present study was to do a qualitative evaluation of phytochemicals present in the flower buds of Bauhinia variegata (BV) which belongs to the family “Fabaceae’ which is well known for its scented flowers. A few of the Bauhinia variegata trees (6 trees) were spotted in Universiti Sains Malaysia (U.S.M.), Penang, near the old building of ‘Subaida Restourant’.

 

The young, premature flower buds of the plant were subjected to analysis for their phytochemical constituents as fresh material. The fresh raw flower buds of the plant were macerated and subjected to hot percolation separately. The maceration was carried out for 72 hours with absolute alcohol. The hot percolation (Soxhlet extraction) was carried out in intervals, approximately for 40 hours. The shade-dried flower buds were also subjected to maceration and hot percolation separately with absolute alcohol. The extracts were dried over a rotary evaporator. After evaporation, the greenish pinkish colour gummy mass was obtained from the fresh flower bud extractions. The evaporated extracts of shade-dried flower buds were of a greenish gummy mass. Some of the extracts were greenish yellow and greenish in colour. All evaporated extracts were dissolved and diluted in the respective solvents for phytochemical analysis. The qualitative screening of analytical results showed the presence of alkaloids, reducing sugars, terpenoids, glycosides, tannins, flavonoids and carbohydrates in all the extractions. The tests for saponins revealed that this group was not present in any of the solvent extracts. Anthraquinones showed the presence in Flower A and Bud SA only, while this group was not present in Flower B, Bud A and Bud B samples. Antioxidant activity was also determined, showing highly antioxidant activity.

 

These findings highlight the therapeutic potential of Bauhinia variegata flower buds, and further studies are required to validate these results.

 

Author(s) Details

Kew K. S
Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Bedong, Kedah D.A., Malaysia.

 

Neivashini M
Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Bedong, Kedah D.A., Malaysia.

 

Ooi X. C
Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Bedong, Kedah D.A., Malaysia.

 

Nabila P
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University Sains Malaysia (U.S.M.), Penang, Malaysia.

 

Naeem H. Khan
Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Bedong, Kedah D.A., Malaysia.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/psnid/v7/6031

Determining the Effects on Plant Metabolites of Khairwal (Bauhinia Purpurea Linn) | Chapter 6 | Pharmaceutical Research - Recent Advances and Trends Vol. 4

 

Bauhinia purpurea Linn is an ornamental plant found throughout the globe known as Khairwal in Hindi having high therapeutic value in Ayurvedic preparations. Numerous types of biological activities are attributed to bauhinia species. B. Purpurea Linn is an important species used to treat many ailments in the traditional system of medicine. The plant is popular in India, and bark was reported as antimycobacterial, antimalarial, antifungal, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory activities. The plant is useful in diarrhoea, pain, rheumatism, inflammation, cancer, and many more medicinal purposes. Since the plant is used in various formulations commonly, its quality and quantity are of prime importance. The current study deals with the changes in chemical constituents due to different factors. For the present study, the fresh leaves of Bauhinia Purpurea linn was selected. Polyphenol content was determined spectrophotometrically. In order to determine the seasonal variation of the concentration of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity, plant materials during three different seasons and geographical conditions were analysed. The findings of the study suggested that Hydroalcoholic extracts contain strong phytochemical activity while changing different parameters. Change of season or region does affect drastically the synthesis of phytochemicals of the plant.

 

Author(s) Details

Ashish Sarkar
Institute of Pharmacy, HCPG College, India.

L. P. Singh
Institute of Pharmacy, HCPG College, India.

V. D. Tripathi
Sagar Institute of Technology, India.

Garima Mishra
Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Shri Guru Ram Rai University, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/prrat/v4/1195

Characterization of Phytochemicals and Antioxidant Activity in Leaf and Flower Extracts of Ruta graveolens L., an Ethnomedicinal Plant of BR Hills, Chamarajanagar, Karnataka, India | Chapter 4 | Pharmaceutical Science: New Insights and Developments Vol. 7

The Rutaceae or rue family is commonly known as the citrus family and consists of cultivated fruit trees and medicinal herbs. Ruta graveolens L. is a scandent, highly medicinal herb distributed in various countries around the globe and has drawn attention due to its ethnomedicinal value.  The present work attempted to study the phytochemicals and antioxidant activity in the leaves, flowers/ seeds in the natural populations of R. graveolens found in the Biligiriranga hills, Karnataka, India.  The phytochemical analysis carried out using leaf, flower and seed extracts of R. graveolens showed the presence of flavonoids and cardiac glycosides. The aqueous extract (polar solvent) of the leaf showed the presence of flavonoids, steroids and terpenoids. The fresh extract of (methanol) flowers and seeds showed the presence of flavonoids and terpenoids. The leaves, flowers and seed extracts showed the presence of four phytochemicals, namely flavonoids, terpenoids, steroids and glycosides. The total phenolic content conducted for the hexane leaf extract was detected at 45.90 µg GAE/g of total phenolics. The ethanol extract of the leaf contained 134.4 µg GAE/g of total phenolics. The aqueous extract of the leaf contained 124.34 µg GAE/g of total phenolics, whereas fresh extract of the flowers and seeds contained 95.71 µg GAE/g of total phenolic content.  High reducing power was found in the ethanol leaf extract, which was followed by aqueous and hexane extracts. The highest percentage of radical scavenging activity was found in the ethanolic extract (94.76% µg/mL) and aqueous extract (89.53% µg/mL). Thin layer chromatography carried out for the leaf ethanolic and flower/seed methanolic extracts detected the presence of three phenolic and six flavonoid bands. These are the phytochemicals implicated in various biological activities. The study of phytochemicals and antioxidants indicated R. graveolens as a good source of phytochemicals such as phenolic compounds and flavonoids. Further, identification of the phytochemicals is necessary to unravel the type of phenolic compounds from Ruta species collected in the wild.

 

Author(s) Details

Sowmya S
Department of Studies in Botany, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore–570 006, Karnataka, India.

 

Madhuchhanda Das
Department of Studies in Botany, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore–570 006, Karnataka, India.

 

Monnanda S. Nalini
Department of Studies in Botany, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore–570 006, Karnataka, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/psnid/v7/5937

An Overview of Flavonoids and Antioxidant Potential of Prosopis cineraria | Chapter 10 | Innovations in Science and Technology: Shaping a Sustainable Future (Vol. 2)

 

Herbal medicines are becoming more and more significant in pharmaceutical treatments and healthcare systems. Herbal medicines and nutritious foods frequently have fewer adverse reactions than synthetic medications. Since the chemical components of plants are involved in the physiological processes of live flora, it is thought that these components are more suited to human physiology. One such valuable plant, Prosopis cineraria, commonly referred to as Khejri or Janti, is an indigenous plant found in dry regions of India. Ayurveda mentions this plant with several therapeutic advantages. The plant yields a variety of secondary metabolites, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, polyphenols, tannins, saponins, and resins. The components of Prosopis leaves and stem bark have several therapeutic benefits and can be used to treat a wide range of illnesses. Its dry pods aid in avoiding blood iron and calcium deficiencies as well as malnutrition from protein and calories. This book chapter provides insight into the flavonoids present in the different parts of the plant as well as the antioxidant activity described in earlier reports.

 

Author(s) Details

Abha Chaudhary
Department of Chemistry, Government Post Graduate College Ambala Cantt, Haryana, India.

 

Dharminder Sharma
Department of Chemistry, Jagdish Chandra DAV College, Dasuya, Punjab, India.

 

Sandeep Kumar
Department of Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering and Physical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-48006-49-3/CH10

Evaluation of the In-vitro Antioxidant Activity and In-vivo Anti-Wrinkle Activities of Combined Lavandula angustifolia and Nerium oleander on Laboratory Mice | Chapter 3 | Research Perspective on Biological Science Vol. 5

The current study investigates the in vitro antioxidant activity and in vivo anti-wrinkle effects of a combined ethanolic leaf extract of Lavandula angustifolia and Nerium oleander on laboratory mice. Antioxidant potential was evaluated using assays such as the hydrogen peroxide scavenging method. The combined extract IC50 value was found to be 17.96±2 which is comparable to standard Ascorbic acid (19.95±2). The in vivo anti-wrinkle activity was assessed by topically applying the extract to the UV-exposed skin of laboratory mice over a specified period. Key indicators such as wrinkle reduction and improvements in skin appearance were monitored and the results were tabulated in Table 13. The results demonstrated that the combined leaf extract exhibited significant antioxidant activity, suggesting its potential to mitigate oxidative stress. Furthermore, the in vivo application significantly improved skin parameters, confirming its efficacy in reducing wrinkle formation. These findings highlight the potential use of this plant-based formulation in cosmetic and therapeutic applications for skin health.

 

Author (s) Details

K. V. Naga Lakshmi
Acharya Nagarjuna University, India and Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India.

 

SK. Abdul Rahaman
Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India.

 

Devanaboyina Narendra
VJ’s College of Pharmacy, Diwancheruvu, Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/rpbs/v5/5740

Synthesis and Evaluation of In-vitro and In-vivo Antioxidant Properties: Novel 2-phenyl-3-Sustituted Quinazoline-4-ones | Chapter 5 | Recent Developments in Chemistry and Biochemistry Research Vol. 7

 

Quinazolinones, a prominent scaffold in medicinal chemistry, exhibits a wide array of biological activities. This research focused on synthesizing and evaluating two series of 3-substituted quinazolin-4(3H)-ones for their antioxidant properties. The evaluation encompassed both in vitro methods, namely DPPH and reducing power method, and in vivo studies using lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione reductase, and glutathione peroxidase assays on erythrocytes of carbon tetrachloride-intoxicated rats. The objective was to establish structure-antioxidant activity relationships based on diverse substituents at position 3 of the quinazolinone scaffold. The newly synthesized quinazoline derivatives, designated as 7a1-7a8 and 7b1-7b8, displayed notable antioxidant properties, potentially contributing to their observed biological activity. Among the two series, compound 7b5, bearing a methyl piperazine at the 3rd position and a chlorine atom at the 6th position on the 3-substituted quinazoline nucleus, exhibited outstanding antioxidant activity in both in vitro and in vivo methods. Furthermore, compounds 7a5 and 7a8 demonstrated significant antioxidant properties in the DPPH assay, while compounds 7a3, 7a4, 7a5, and 7a8 displayed notable activity in the reducing power method. In vivo studies revealed significant antioxidant properties in compounds 7a5, 7a8, 7b4, 7b6, and 7b8. Additionally, compounds 7a6 and 7b7 showed promising antioxidant activity in vivo. These findings underscore the potential of quinazoline-based compounds as therapeutic agents for managing oxidative stress-related disorders.

 

Author (s) Details

Praveen Kumar Kusuma
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, New Delhi-110017, India.

 

Girijasastry Vedula
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/rdcbr/v7/2769

 

Effect of Metformin (MET) in Protection against Oxidative Stress and Pancreatic Damage Using an Animal Model | Chapter 6 | Pharmaceutical Science: New Insights and Developments Vol. 5

Aim: The present study investigated the effects of metformin (MET) in protection against oxidative stress and pancreatic damage using an animal model, to assess the effect of metformin on oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro.

 

Introduction: Diabetes mellitus is a worldwide health problem that has a deleterious impact on life expectancy and quality. People with diabetes have a higher oxidation state, which is detrimental to homeostasis. Numerous tissues have demonstrated the anti-oxidant qualities of metformin. An oral medication for diabetes called metformin aids in blood sugar regulation.

 

Methods: This study investigated the effect of metformin on total antioxidant markers in the serum and pancreatic tissue of Alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Diabetic rats were randomised into five groups for treatment and received metformin (100,200,300 mg/kg) orally once daily for four weeks. The antioxidant potential of evaluated total antioxidant status (TAOS) in vivo and through DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl) scavenging assay at 517 nm in vitro.

 

Results: A Considerable drop in elevated blood glucose level was observed in the alloxan-induced diabetic. At a dose of 100,200,300mg/kg demonstrated increase significantly improvement rate percentage in (M100, M200, M300) were (40.701 %),(48.063%) and (48.101%) respectively after end of treatment compared to diabetic group that decrease (-243.340%), TAOS were significantly increased in treated group than diabetic group" p= 0.000* ".The percentage of improvement rate elevation in treatment M100, M200, and M300 was (133.202 %,148.433% and 194.358%) respectively, compared with diabetic, while that percentage was decreased (-65.677%). Also, it improved pancreas histopathology compared to the diabetic control group it improved pancreas histopathology compared to the diabetic control group Antioxidant activity using DPPH was found to increase in a concentration-time-dependent manner IC₅₀ of metformin (498.0 µg/ml), while ascorbic acid IC50 (µg/ml 29.62).

 

Conclusions: In "alloxan-induced diabetic rats", metformin provides "protective actions" against free radicals and oxidative stress, as well as improving pancreas tissue histology and lowering blood glucose levels.

 

Author (s) Details

Abeer Mansour Abdel Rasool
Department of Pharmacology, Collage of Pharmacy, University of Nineveh, Iraq.

 

Isam Hamo Mahmood
Department of Pharmacology, AL Noor University Collage, Bartella, Iraq.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/psnid/v5/1665

Regulation of Lipid Peroxidation and Cell Membrane Fluidity Mechanisms Using Stem-Bark Extracts from Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl. & Diels) Verdc| Chapter 1 | Pharmaceutical Research: Recent Advances and Trends Vol. 8

Pneumonia, a respiratory infection induces acute or chronic inflammation, characterized by increased activity of lymphocytes and neutrophils, thus generating oxygen-free radicals that decrease the endogenous antioxidants defence system. Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. is used by the population of Cameroon to treat gonorrhoea, infertility, malaria, stomach ache, headache, epilepsy, toothache psychosis and rheumatism. It’s also considered as facilitating childbirth, diuretic, purgative and aphrodisiac. There is limited documented data are available on the preventive or curative effect of G. suaveolens species on oxidative stress and inflammatory damage. The aim of this experimental study focused on the capacity of nontoxic aqueous, hydroethanolic and ethanolic extracts of Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. subsp. suaveolens to regulate free reactive species and protein inflammation generated by infectious disease. The phytochemical screenings of G. suaveolens extracts were carried out according to precipitation and colorimetric methods. The total antioxidant and flavonoid contents were determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu and Aluminium Chloride ethanolic methods. The efficiency of G. suaveolens extracts on free radicals was evaluated using DPPH•, ABTS+•, and FRAP methods. The anti-inflammatory properties of extracts were evaluated according to in vitro protein (BSA) denaturation, Proteinase Inhibitory Action, and Red Blood Cell Membrane stabilization assays. The G. suaveolens aqueous, hydroethanolic and ethanolic extracts were used for the acute toxicity assessment according to the OECD protocol. One-way ANOVA (Tukey’s and Dunnett’s tests) was used for analysis. A difference between standard molecules and G. suaveolens extracts concentrations was considered significant at p < 0.05. The obtained results showed the presence of flavonoids, phenols, polyphenols, tannins, anthocyanins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and sterols as secondary metabolites families in G. suaveolens extracts. The highest contents of total antioxidants and flavonoids were highlighted in the hydroethanolic extract. However, it’s the G. suaveolens aqueous extract that showed the best free radical DPPH• and ABTS+• scavenging activities (SC50) of 11.06 µg/mL and 15.16 µg/mL respectively. The highest ferric-reducing activity was found in G. suaveolens ethanolic extract with 866.23 µg EGA/mg of dry weight. The hydroethanolic extract has shown a high anti-inflammatory activity through BSA denaturation and erythrocyte membrane haemolysis with inhibitory concentrations 50 (IC50) of 48.63 and 59.22 µg/mL respec- tively. In contrast, proteinase inhibitory activity revealed a better potential of IC50 (34.19 µg/mL) for the ethanolic extract. In oral acute toxicity, all treated groups revealed neither mortality nor any significant alteration in behaviour and locomotion. The lethal dose 50 (LD50) of G. suaveolens extracts was >5000 mg/kg. Lower respiratory tract diseases, the main pathophysiological mechanism of which is inflammation is mainly induced by reactive oxygen species. These diseases are caused by microorganisms and the immune system response of the host. In vitro study of G. suaveolens stem-barks extracts revealed the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of this plant. These results suggest that G. suaveolens stem-barks extracts may serve as therapeutic sources to prevent inflammation induced by oxidative stress, an important feature of infectious diseases.

 

Author (s) Details

Patrick Hervé Diboue Betote
Laboratory of Pharmacology and Drugs Discovery, Centre for Research on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaoundé, Cameroon, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon and Multidisciplinary Laboratory, Department of Galenical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Law, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical, Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon.

 

Moustapha Gambo Abdoulaye
Department of Physicochemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Abdou Moumouni University, Niamey, Niger.

 

Francis Ngolsou
Multidisciplinary Laboratory, Department of Galenical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Law, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical, Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon and Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon.

 

Esther Del Florence Ndedi Moni
Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon.

 

Gabriel A. Agbor
Laboratory of Pharmacology and Drugs Discovery, Centre for Research on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaoundé, Cameroon.

 

Nga Nnanga
Multidisciplinary Laboratory, Department of Galenical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Law, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical, Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon, Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon and Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, Centre for Research on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaoundé, Cameroon.

 

Maximilienne Ascension Nyegue
Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/prrat/v8/2278

Extraction and Assessment of Peptide Profiles Based on Hydrolysates of Collagen-containing Fish Raw Materials | Chapter 2 | Research Perspective on Biological Science Vol. 1

The fish processing industry generates more than 60% of its by-products as waste. These large volumes of fishery by-products will create serious pollution and disposal problems in both developed and developing countries. Experimental studies of fish cutting waste—scales and skin were carried out, their general biochemical composition was studied, a high content of collagen was established, and elastin was noted, which accounted for 76–86% of the protein mass. Processes for the hydrolysis of secondary fish raw materials have been developed: fish scales and skin. Technological schemes have been developed, and the influence of the conditions of thermal, enzymatic, enzymatic-thermal, electro-chemical hydrolysis on the amino acid composition and molecular weight distribution (MWD) and antioxidant activity of peptides and proteins in the obtained hydrolysates has been studied. Statistical data processing was performed using the Microsoft Office 2010 and Mathcad 2000 Professional software packages at a 95% confidence level. It has been established that the enzymatic and enzymatic-thermal method of hydrolysis of fish scales using the enzyme Alcalase 2.5 L and the electrochemical hydrolysis of the skin of cod, trout and herring made it possible to obtain protein hydrolysates with a protein content of 80–90%. At the same time, 91–98% of enzymatic hydrolysates from scales and 62%, 74% and 82.5% of electrochemically obtained hydrolysates from the skin of trout, herring, and cod, respectively, account for the share of low-molecular peptides with a molecular weight of less than 10 kDa. The prospects of their use in functional foods and oil-containing products are noted.

 

Author (s) Details

 

E. E. Kuprina
Saint-Petersburg State Institute of Technology Moskovsky Prospekt 24-26/49 A, 190013 St. Petersburg, Russia.

 

E. I. Kiprushkina
Saint-Petersburg State Institute of Technology, Moskovsky Prospekt, 24-26/49 A, 190013 St. Petersburg, Russia.

 

Y. V. Broyko
Saint-Petersburg State Institute of Technology, Moskovsky Prospekt, 24-26/49 A, 190013 St. Petersburg, Russia.

 

I. A. Shestopalova
Saint-Petersburg State Institute of Technology, Moskovsky Prospekt, 24-26/49 A, 190013 St. Petersburg, Russia.

 

M. M. Shamtsyan
Saint-Petersburg State Institute of Technology, Moskovsky Prospekt, 24-26/49 A, 190013 St. Petersburg, Russia.

 

O. V. Volkova
Saint-Petersburg State Institute of Technology, Moskovsky Prospekt, 24-26/49 A, 190013 St. Petersburg, Russia.

 

N. Y. Romanenko
Kaliningrad State Technical University, Sovetsky Prospect 1, 236022 Kaliningrad, Russia.

 

O. Y. Mezenova
Kaliningrad State Technical University, Sovetsky Prospect 1, 236022 Kaliningrad, Russia.

 

T. Grimm
Biotechnology Company ANIMOX, Max-Planck-Straße 3, 12489 Berlin, Germany.

 

T. Mörsel
Research and Consulting Laboratory UBF, 15345 Altlandsberg, Germany.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/rpbs/v1/4319

Antioxidant Activity of Selenium Containing Analogues: A Review of Glutathione Peroxidase and Antioxidant Mechanism | Chapter 3 | Chemistry and Biochemistry: Research Progress Vol. 3

This chapter provides information published in recent years on the chemical forms, particularly on the antioxidant and prooxidant activities of organoselenium compounds. In the present study, a series of functional mimics of synthetic antioxidant organoselenium compounds such as ebselen, Allyl               selenides, selenenate esters, Diferrocenyldiselenides, spirodioxyselenurane, spirodiazaselenuranes and its glutathione peroxidase (GPx) catalytic activity are discussed. The first synthetic compound ebselen and its related compounds show significant antioxidant activity. Therefore, initial successes of ebselen exhibited beneficial effects in clinical trials. Further, diferrocenyldiselenides containing tert-amino substituents exhibited excellent GPx activity in the presence of PhSH and imported remarkably higher activity than that of ebselen. In addition, spirodioxyselenurane and spirodiazaselenuranes are structurally interesting compounds and the stability of these compounds highly depends on the nature of the substituents attached to the nitrogen atom. The high concentration of peroxides addition the selenium centre in the spirocyclic compounds undergoes further oxidation to produce the corresponding selenurane oxides, which are stable at room temperature. The overall use of synthetic reagents is becoming increasingly popular for pre-clinical studies and bio-medicinal applications. 

 

Author (s) Details

Devappa S. Lamani
Department of Chemistry, Basaveshawar Science College, Bagalkot, Rani Channamma University, Karnataka, India.

 

Shekappa D. Lamani
Department of Chemistry, BLADE’S SB Arts and KCP Science College, Vijayapur, Karnataka, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/cbrp/v3/4291

Chemical Composition and Bioactivities of Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb Essential Oil | Chapter 5 | Recent Developments in Chemistry and Biochemistry Research Vol. 4

In the present study, the antibacterial activity and antioxidant properties of Eugenia caryophyllata essential oil and its protective effect against lipid peroxidation were investigated. Gas chromatography/mass spectrophotometrical analyses were used to determine the chemical composition of the studied essential oil. The antibacterial activity of E.caryophyllata essential oil was evaluated by using disc diffusion method and agar incorporation method to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the tested essential oil against four pathogenic bacteria: Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 33862, Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by using tree different tests, DPPH radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging assays and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. Our finding indicated that E. caryophyllata essential oil has shown a strong antibacterial effect against all the tested bacterial strains with inhibition zone diameters varied from 17.5 to 20.5 mm and minimal inhibition concentration (MIC) ranging between 0.8 μL / mL and 4.4 μL / mL. Gram-positive bacteria, B. cereus and S. aureus are the most sensitive species with a MIC value of 0.8 μL / mL, however P. aeruginosa is the most resistant species to the inhibitory effect of the studied essential oil with a MIC value of 4.4 μL /mL. The result of the antioxidant effect demonstrated that E. caryophyllata essential oil exhibited a powerful antioxidant activity higher than that of standard antioxidants: gallic acid, vitamin C and BHT. The tested essential oil showed a protective effect against lipid peroxidation better than that of the standard antioxidants: gallic acid and vitamin C, confirmed by a significant decrease in malonic dialdehyde (MDA) levels. These results suggest that the essential oil of E. caryophyllata may be alternative natural source medicine to prevent and treat many diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria and oxidative stress.

 

Author (s) Details

Fatiha Abdellah
Laboratory of Research on Local Animal Products, Ibn-Khaldoun University, 14000 Tiaret, Algeria.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/rdcbr/v4/654

Chemistry of Depsides from Manglicolous lichen Dirinaria consimilis (Stirton) D.D. Awasthi along with their Pharmacological Insights | Chapter 1 | Recent Developments in Chemistry and Biochemistry Research Vol. 3

This book chapter provides a thorough examination of the isolation process, structural characterization, and pharmacological properties of two novel depsides, Antarvedisides A and B, extracted from Dirinaria consimilis (Stirton) D.D. Awasthi, alongside several known depsides. The study explores the compounds' structural features and delves into their pharmacological profile, emphasizing their potential as promising candidates for future drug development. Chromatographic examination of acetone extract of D. consimilis yielded Antarvedisides A and B, sekikaic acid, atranorin, divaricatic acid and 2’-O-methyl divaricatic acid. Antioxidant activity assessment through superoxide, DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays reveals that Antarvedisides A-B and 2’-O-Methyldivaricatic acid exhibit remarkable antiradical scavenging capacities, surpassing the standard drug, ascorbic acid. The investigation extends to in vitro anti-inflammatory activity, where atranorin exhibits superior inhibition against protein denaturation in comparison to the standard drug indomethacin. Antarvedisides A-B showcases moderate anti-inflammatory activity, further detailed with IC50 values ranging from 878-600 µg/mL. The anticancer potential of the depsides is highlighted through the Sulforhodamine B assay screening. Antarvediside B emerges as a potent inhibitor of cell growth in MCF-7 and HeLa, outperforming doxorubicin. Additionally, 2’-O-methyldivaricatic acid demonstrates significant inhibitory profiles against various cancer cell lines. In conclusion, this abstract summarizes the comprehensive pharmacological profile of Antarvedisides A and B, shedding light on their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. These findings underscore the potential of these depsides as valuable candidates for further drug development and contribute to the expanding knowledge of natural compounds with therapeutic implications.

Author(s) Details:

Vinay Bharadwaj Tatipamula,
Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Girija Sastry Vedula
Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, AU College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, Andhra Pradesh, India.


Please see the link here: https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/rdcbr/v3/12824F

Antioxidant Properties and Protective Effect of Phenolic Extracts of Olive Leaves and Olive Mill Wastewater against Lipid Peroxidation | Chapter 5 | Innovations in Biological Science Vol. 6

 

The aim of this study was to evaluate the In vitro antioxidant activity of the phenolic extracts of olive leaves and olive mill wastewater and their protective effect against lipid peroxidation. The antioxidant activity of two varieties (Chemlal and Sigoise) of the tested olive leaves and olive mill wastewater was evaluated using three different antioxidant assays (DPPH radical scavenging test, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay, and hydrogen peroxide scavenging assay). The protective effect of the tested extracts against lipid peroxidation in an in vitro model of rat liver homogenate was evaluated through the production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). The obtained results showed that the phenolic extracts of olive leaves and olive mill wastewater are rich in phenolic compounds mainly flavonoids, with the highest content found in the extract of Chemlal olive leaves (88.35±0.73 mg GAE/g of extract for polyphenols and 45.98±0.36 mg QE/g of extract for flavonoids). Furthermore, significant anti-free radical activity and reducing power have been shown by the tested extracts. In fact, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can be neutralized by the studied extracts. The extract of Chemlal olive leaves exhibited the most important antioxidant activity. The tested extracts showed a significant decrease in malonic dialdehyde (MDA) levels and a protective effect against lipid peroxidation. The high protective effect was exhibited by the phenolic extract of Chemlal olive leaves. According to the obtained results, it appears that the phenolic extracts of olive leaves and olive mill wastewater have an important antioxidant potential and protective effect against lipid peroxidation and they can be used as natural antioxidant agents in food and pharmaceutical industries.

Author(s) Details:

Fatiha Abdellah,
Laboratory of Research on Local Animal Products at Ibn Khaldoun University, Tiaret, Algeria.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/IBS-V6/article/view/14927

Extraction and Purification of C-Phycocyanin from Spirulina Powder and Evaluating its Anti-oxidant, Anti-coagulant and DNA Damage Prevention Properties | Chapter 2 | Advanced Concepts in Pharmaceutical Research Vol. 6

C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a phycobiliprotein found in blue-green algae, such as Spirulina platensis which is often used as a dietary nutritional supplement and exhibits a variety of pharmacological properties. Cyanobacteria and algae possess a wide range of colored compounds, including chlorophyll, carotenoids and phycobiliproteins. In this regard, extraction, partial purification, antioxidant, anticoagulation and prevention of DNA damage activity of C-PC were investigated. In the present study, a simple and efficient method to extract C-PC from Spirulina platensis dry powder is reported. Spirulina platensis dry powder was obtained from NB Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., Nagpur, India. The extractions were carried out using two different methods: cold maceration and sonication method. The extraction using the cold maceration method proved to be the most efficient method. The efficiency of extraction methods was determined by calculating the concentration and purity ratio of isolated C-PC. Obtained crud C-PC was purified by ammonium sulphate precipitation, dialysis and gel filtration and presented a final extraction yield of 3.27±0.09 mg/ml with a purity ratio of 2.317±0.08. When it was evaluated as an antioxidant in vitro, it was able for scavenging nitric oxide. SDS-PAGE results show that the 40% ammonium sulphate precipitated sample and dialyzed sample show two bands of C-PC i.e. α and β with 17 and 19kDa respectively along with other proteins. C-PC showed significant anticoagulation and prevention of DNA damage activity. C-PC is a significant contributor to DNA damage prevention by scavenging of –OH.

Author(s) Details:

Suresh P. Kamble,
Department of Biochemistry, Moolji Jaitha College (Autonomous), Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/ACPR-V6/article/view/13412

Examining Acetone Extracts of Toona cilliata, Seriphium plumosum and Schkuhria pinnata on Hela Cervical Cancer Cells: Anticancer Potential | Chapter 7 | Advancement and New Understanding in Medical Science Vol. 5

Background: Cervical cancer is common in women in less developed regions of the world. The plant biomolecules can be employed for synergistic activity with chemo- and radiotherapy. This combination might result in reduced toxicity and increased efficacy of the treatment regimen. At present, more than 8 South African women die from cervical cancer every day. The anti-cancer activity of the acetone extracts of S. plumosum, T. cilliata and S. pinnata was assessed using different parameters.

Methods: S. plumosum and S. pinnata were collected from Mankweng and T. cilliata from Tzaneen in Limpopo province, South Africa. An immortalized human cell line (HeLa) was used in this study and the cells were cultured and maintained in RPMI media. Secondary metabolite detection and antioxidant activity quantification were determined using the DPPH and ferric iron reducing assays. HeLa cell growth inhibition and mechanistics were assessed by employing MTT and Annexin-V flous assays.

Results: Observations revealed the presence of phenolic, flavonoids, tannins steroids and coumarins in all the plants extracts. A high amount of total phenolic and flavonoid content was detected in S. plumosum and T. cilliata. S. plumosum extract had the best DPPH scavenging activity and ferric reducing powers. The Antioxidant activity profile show S. plumosum to contain more compounds with antioxidant activity as compared to the other two plant extracts.

Conclusion: Observable concentration dependent cell proliferation inhibition by test materials was exhibited. The leaf extracts from T. cilliata, S. plumosum and S. pinnata contain compounds of various polarities with free-radicals, antioxidant and anti-cancerous activities that may play a beneficial role in treatment.

Author(s) Details:

Mxolisi Justice Ndlovu,
Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology Faculty of Sciences and Agriculture, South Africa.

Victor Patrick Bagla,
Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology Faculty of Sciences and Agriculture, South Africa.

Matlou Phenius Mokgotho,
Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology Faculty of Sciences and Agriculture, South Africa.

Marema Ephraim Makgatho,
Department of Pathology and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Limpopo, South Africa.

Thabe Moss Matsebatlela,
Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology Faculty of Sciences and Agriculture, South Africa.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/ANUMS-V5/article/view/13307

Preliminary Phytochemical, Physicochemical Evaluation and Spectrometric Analysis of Selected Indian Plants with Antioxidant Activity | Chapter 4 | Advanced Concepts in Pharmaceutical Research Vol. 5

The objective of this research was to develop a polyherbal formulation using three different herbs and to evaluate their phytochemicals, physical constants and determination of their antioxidant activity by DPPH method. Folklore medicine is being re-evaluated by extensive research on different plant species and their therapeutic principles. The PHF authenticated herbs were characterized by studying their morphological and phytochemical analysis. Preliminary screening showed the presence of alkaloids, glycosides, carbohydrates, amino acids and flavonoids in the combination extract. Physical parameters such as loss on drying (LOD), ash values and extractive values have been studied. The antioxidant activity of the combination of extract (100 mg each) was determined using DPPH free radical scavenging method. The results showed that the combination extract has best antioxidant effect at a dose of 300 µg/ml and the % inhibition of PHF is 75.2% and 96.6 % inhibition for ascorbic acid as the reference standard. All the extracts and PHF showed a dose dependent activity. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) uses the mathematical process (Fourier transform) to translate the raw data (interferogram) into the actual spectrum. FTIR method is used to obtain the infrared spectrum of transmission or absorption of a fuel sample.  The result showed that the PHF has more potent antioxidant activity when compared with individual extract. It also shows that the combination of three different herbs in a single formulation is completely compatible with each other which is determined from FTIR. The presence of heavy metal and minerals in the prepared extracts and PHF where analysed using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The results showed that the tested minerals and metals were within the specified limit.  From the study, the levels of these metals were detected in all three plants and PHF. Presence of heavy metals and minerals in the prepared extracts and PHF were analysed using AAS and were with in the specified limits.

Author(s) Details:

Segu Prathyusha,
School of Pharmacy, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy - 501506, India.

Ratnakar Cherukupally,
School of Pharmacy, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy - 501506, India.

Saraswathi Kaspa,
School of Pharmacy, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy - 501506, India.

Sumalatha K.,
School of Pharmacy, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy - 501506, India.

Shaik Harun Rasheed,
School of Pharmacy, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy - 501506, India.

Ch. Pavani,
School of Pharmacy, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy - 501506, India.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/ACPR-V5/article/view/13244

Hydrolysate Protein Production from Catfish with Understanding of the Potential Antioxidant Activity | Chapter 5 | Novel Aspects on Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol. 9

This chapter identifies the way of producing Hydrolysate protein from the sailfin catfish, scientifically known as Pterygoplichthys pardalis which is a freshwater fish belonging to the Loricariidae family. Catfish is considered one of the invasive species in Indonesia but the effectiveness of this fish is unrevealed till now. for this reason, we use this fish as the raw material for protein hydrolysate. Protein hydrolysate is the process of breaking down the protein into amino acids through the reaction of hydrolysis facilitated by acids, bases or enzymes.

The selected sample (Pterygoplichthys pardalis) was collected from a river located in Blitar Regency, East Java, Indonesia. The catfish specimens were thoroughly rinsed with water to eliminate any impurities and subsequently transported to the laboratory in a temperature-controlled container maintained at 4°C.

The experiment of hydrolysis involved different levels of pH (control, 5,7, 9). Two different durations (12 and 24 hours) were selected for implementing the hydrolysis process and each was replicated three times. This experiment selected a few parameters that include yield, antioxidant activity, degree of hydrolysis, protein levels, and ash content. These parameters were extensively impacted (p <0.05) by the time of hydrolysis, pH and their interactions.

It can be concluded that the most significant effect (p < 0.05) has been shown by the moisture content, pH and the duration of hydrolysis although their interactions did not (p > 0.05). It has been observed that the pH treatment (p < 0.05) has significantly affected the Fat content. Therefore, it can be concluded that a pH of 9 and a duration of 24 hours were the optimal conditions that can produce fish protein hydrolysate (FPH) from sailfin catfish.

Author(s) Details:

Asep Awaludin Prihanto,
Fishery Product Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Brawijaya University, Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia and Bio-Seafood Research Unit, Brawijaya University, Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia.

Rahmi Nurdiani,
Fishery Product Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Brawijaya University, Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia and Bio-Seafood Research Unit, Brawijaya University, Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia.

Lina Widya Sari,
Bio-Seafood Research Unit, Brawijaya University, Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/NACB-V9/article/view/13030