A Retrospective Analysis of National Surveillance Data on the Epidemiology of Meningitis in Niger (2005 – 2020) | Chapter 2 | An Overview of Disease and Health Research Vol. 9

 

Background: Bacterial meningitis is a major public health problem, especially in low-income countries. It is caused by Nesseria meningitidis (Nm), a Gram-negative bacterium of the family Neisseriaceae that infects humans only. In Africa, epidemics of meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitides have been a public health problem for over a century.

 

Aim: This study analysed national surveillance data and isolates from Niger to describe the epidemiology of bacterial meningitis from 2005 to 2020.

 

Methods: A retrospective study was conducted using nationwide case-based surveillance data of all reported meningitis cases in Niger from 2005 to 2020. A modified case definition was used to classify the cases. Data were collected and analysed using Stata 12.0.

 

Results: Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) was recorded over the entire period from 2005 to 2020. A total of 47,953 suspected meningitis cases and 3,276 deaths (CFR=6.83%) were reported, corresponding to an incidence of 189.01 cases per 100,000 population. The male represented 55.41% (sex-ratio male: female = 1.30), and 40.52% were 5 -14 years old. A total of 29,998 cases were reported through RNL, of which 10,979 (36.60%) were confirmed, and 6,149 (56.01%) were confirmed by culture. The predominant organism identified was N. meningitidis serogroup A (33.91%). All regions reported meningitis cases, and a consistent and substantial reduction was seen in confirmed NmA cases, with no cases occurring in the country after the completion of mass campaigns. Nevertheless, other pathogen species and Nm variants, including NmX, NmC, and Streptococcus pneumoniae, have become more prevalent.

 

Conclusion: Increased surveillance of multiple serogroups throughout is necessary, as well as consideration of vaccination with combination vaccines rather than just using a single strain, as is currently the case with NmA.

 

 

Author(s) Details

Alkassoum S. I.
Département de Santé Publique, Université Abdou Moumouni, FSS, Niamey, Niger.

 

Abdoulaye Z.
Département de Santé Publique, Université Abdou Moumouni, FSS, Niamey, Niger.

 

Goni A.
Département de Santé Publique, Université de Zinder, Niger.

 

Amadou O.
Université Dan Dicko Dan Koulodo, Maradi, Niger.

 

Djibo A.
Département de Santé Publique, Université Abdou Moumouni, FSS, Niamey, Niger.

 

Emoud T.
Hopital Général de Référence, Niamey, Niger.

 

Ibrahim M. L.
Centre de Recherche Médicale et Sanitaire, Niamey, Niger.

 

Adeossi E.
Département de Médecine et Spécialités Médicales, Université Abdou Moumouni, FSS, Niamey, Niger.

 

 

Please see the book here :- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/aodhr/v9/6803

Paediatric Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Associated with COVID-19: Advances, Controversies, and Future Perspectives |Chapter 1 | An Overview of Disease and Health Research Vol. 8

 

Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-C), temporally linked to SARS-CoV-2 infection, emerged in 2020 as a condition of significant clinical concern due to its potential to cause multiorgan dysfunction and severe outcomes. It is a post-infectious phenomenon characterised by a dysregulated immune response and intense systemic inflammation. This review analyses scientific findings from the past decade, with emphasis on advances in pathophysiology, updated diagnostic criteria, epidemiological changes over the course of the pandemic, diversity of clinical manifestations, therapeutic strategies, and future perspectives. In 2020, the first cases of MIS-C were diagnosed as Kawasaki disease, and after changes, like Kawasaki disease. The documented experience of a second-level hospital in Guanajuato, Mexico, is also incorporated, allowing reflection on diagnostic and therapeutic challenges in middle-resource settings. Although incidence has decreased following the circulation of recent variants and the implementation of vaccination, MIS-C continues to represent a challenge for global paediatrics.

 

Author(s) Details

Juan Pablo Martínez-Becerra
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, México.

 

Miztli David Aguilar-Caballero
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, México.

 

Ma Guadalupe León-Verdín
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, México.

 

María de Jesús Gallardo-Luna
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, México.

 

Efraín Navarro-Olivos
Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, México.

 

Leticia Zamora-Ramos
General Directorate of Medical Care, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, México.

 

Nicolás Padilla-Raygoza

Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, México.

 

 

Please see the book here :- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/aodhr/v8/6525

 

Mitigating Pandemic Impact: A Systematic Model for Public Health Action |Chapter 5 | An Overview of Disease and Health Research Vol. 7

 

Population growth, as well as the current ease of global interconnectedness, has created an environment conducive to the rapid emergence and spread of infectious diseases, posing a significant threat to global health security. This document describes a systematic framework for the containment and management of these threats, focusing on the principles of Emergency Preparedness, Resilience, and Response (EPRR). The initial and therefore most critical containment barrier is the effective surveillance of primary care physicians, who must maintain a high level of suspicion to detect unusual or epidemiologically suspicious cases. The response to this type of crisis includes the immediate isolation of patients with suspected or confirmed disease, infection control measures, and rapid reporting, all of which are crucial to gain as much time as possible and thus prevent further transmission of the pathogen. If infections cannot be contained, an Outbreak Control Team is deployed to lead a public health response that integrates epidemiology, logistics, and risk communication. The strategic measures required at different levels of care are also detailed, ranging from adapting hospital workflows and managing resource shortages to orienting primary care to manage large patient volumes. Emphasis is placed on the use of traditional public health tools such as screening, isolation, contact tracing, and social distancing in the face of the uncertainty generated by the crisis. The conclusion of the acute phase then gives way to a crucial stage of recovery and learning from the experience, where a structured post-incident review and ongoing training strengthen the future resilience of systems. This approach, with its three proposed interdependent pillars, is intended to be the cornerstone for society's adaptation to the unpredictable nature of biological crises.

 

 

Author(s) Details

Miztli David Aguilar-Caballero
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, Mexico.

 

Juan Pablo Becerra-Martinez
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, Mexico.

 

Ma Guadalupe León-Verdín
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, Mexico.

 

Maria de Jesus Gallardo-Luna
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, Mexico.

 

Efraín Navarro-Olivos
Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, Mexico.

 

Leticia Zamora-Ramos
General Directorate of Medical Care, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, Mexico.

 

Nicolas Padilla-Raygoza
Department of Research and Technological Development, Directorate of Teaching and Research, Institute of Public Health from Guanajuato State, Guanajuato, Mexico.

 

Please see the book here :- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/aodhr/v7/6536

Epidemiology of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Maranhão State, Brazil: Demographic and Socioeconomic Insights | Chapter 4 | An Overview of Disease and Health Research Vol. 7

 

Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL) represents a significant public health challenge, particularly in endemic regions such as Brazil. This chapter delves into the epidemiological landscape of CL within Maranhão State, Brazil, aiming to elucidate the intricate interplay of factors contributing to its persistent prevalence. Drawing upon a comprehensive analysis of epidemiological data, we explore the demographic characteristics of affected populations, the environmental determinants influencing disease transmission, and the broader socioeconomic contexts that shape vulnerability to this neglected tropical disease. The narrative highlights the specific challenges encountered in controlling CL in Maranhão and proposes forward-looking strategies for enhanced disease management and prevention. Through a detailed examination of risk factors, this chapter seeks to provide a didactic overview for researchers, public health practitioners, and policymakers, fostering a deeper understanding of CL and informing more targeted public health initiatives. These findings underscore the critical role of sociodemographic factors, such as age, gender, and educational attainment, in shaping the disease's burden, thereby reinforcing the imperative for integrated health education and preventive policies. From 2020 to 2024, 6,406 cases were registered, marked by a significant number between the years 2020 to 2023, with a substantial decrease in the year 2024, with only 676 cases. A higher prevalence was observed in the ages between 20 and 39 years, and in the ages between 40 and 59 years, with males disproportionately affected. Individuals with incomplete elementary education had a higher incidence of confirmed cases, highlighting that lower educational levels tend to be more vulnerable to infectious diseases due to a limited understanding of the forms of transmission, prevention, and symptoms. This often delays care-seeking, treatment initiation, and ongoing health monitoring. Therefore, there is a need for health education in rural areas with the aim of informing and raising awareness among the population about the disease.

 

 

Author(s) Details

Maria Eduarda Santos Ferreira
Faculty of Health Sciences Pitágoras de Codó, Codó, Brazil.

 

Fernanda da Silva Ferreira
Faculty of Health Sciences Pitágoras de Codó, Codó, Brazil.

 

Keylla da Silva Machado
Faculty of Health Sciences Pitágoras de Codó, Codó, Brazil.

 

Rodrigo Lopes Gomes Gonçalves
Faculty of Health Sciences Pitágoras de Codó, Codó, Brazil.

 

Ian Jhemes Oliveira Sousa
Faculty of Health Sciences Pitágoras de Codó, Codó, Brazil.

 

Please see the book here :- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/aodhr/v7/6541

Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of the Bovine herpesvirus 2 Infection: Disease in Response to Initial Antibody Production | Chapter 10 | Contemporary Research and Perspectives in Biological Science Vol. 3

The aim of the author was to present conclusions from the results of own examinations and results from literature that will lead to a new and better understanding of the epidemiology and pathogenesis of the enigmatic Bovine herpesvirus 2 (BoHV-2) infection.

The current literature on the BoHV-2 infection was reviewed, and it was concluded that important questions concerning the pathogenesis and ways of transmission within and between herds were still not clarified. It was especially noted that the sensitivity of the tests used for the demonstration of antibodies had generally been much too low, making serological confirmation of infection difficult.

The infection was first seen in Denmark as ulcerative mammillitis (bovine herpes mammillitis, BHM) in September 1980, and up to December 1983, a total of 53 outbreaks were diagnosed. No outbreaks have been confirmed later. The Danish test for neutralizing antibodies was elaborated to show adequately high sensitivity. A herd tested shortly after an outbreak showed that all tested animals, including bull calves up to the age of 14 months, were antibody-positive. All 34 outbreaks in 1980 and 1981 apart from the last one occurred in a limited geographical area, where semen used for artificial insemination (AI) usually came from 2 local AI centers. Some selected bulls from these centers were tested and found antibody-positive.

From the Danish examinations, it was concluded, 1) that all cows showing clinical BHM would be antibody-positive when tested by the highly sensitive Danish test, 2) that the spread in herds to all animals could be explained only as airborne, and 3) that the first spread to Danish herds most likely occurred with semen from AI bull centers.  

BoHV-2 is also the cause of the rare pseudo-lumpy skin disease (PLSD), where skin lesions all over the body predominate. PLSD has often been reproduced by intravenous virus inoculations. From the results reported in the literature, it was further concluded (4) that experimental PLSD skin lesions appearing after intravenous inoculation were likely to have been a delayed, adaptive, universal response of the animals to the virus antigen. In consequence, the inflammatory reactions leading to these lesions would be the result of complement activation by the classical pathway, implying that the pathological changes observed clinically were triggered by specific antibodies to the virus at sites of virus propagation. Finally, (5) it was concluded that this explanation would be consistent with the experience that the inflammatory BHM lesions in the skin of teats and udders of cows on the diagnosis of BHM already are antibody-positive .

Furthermore, (6) udder edema aggravates BHM disease, most probably because of the reduced blood circulation resulting in cold skin, which will hamper the removal of the cell-toxic substances formed during the complement activation process. Cold weather causing lowered skin temperature, in particular in hairless areas, during the critical very short period after the production of a sufficient level of reacting antibodies is therefore most likely an essential disease determinant. This will explain why BHM in Europe has predominantly occurred in cold seasons. In cases of BHM, where lesions have appeared only on the teats, a traumatic effect of mechanical milking may have contributed to the development of the clinical picture.

The conclusions may be a valuable contribution to the understanding of skin lesions seen in other diseases caused by dermotropic viruses like herpesviruses and poxviruses.

 

Author (s) Details

Viggo Bitsch
The State Veterinary Serum Laboratory, Copenhagen and the Department of Cattle Diseases, The Danish Dairy Board, Aarhus, Denmark.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/crpbs/v3/2747

 

Schematic Brief Discussion on Bulimia Nervosa: A Psychiatric Disorder and Its Medical Management | Chapter 9 | Medicine and Medical Research: New Perspectives Vol. 3

 

The primary objective of the study is to address any dietary issues and modify your behaviour. The relationship between your thoughts, feelings, and behaviours is examined in therapy. The disease known as bulimia nervosa, which is typified by purging and binge eating, usually starts in adolescence and peaks at the age of 18. Radioactive ligands are used in positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) to investigate the distribution of neurotransmitter receptors and glucose metabolism. The ratio of female to male patients varies from 10:1 to 20:1, with a lifetime frequency of 3 per cent. The majority of bulimic individuals also suffer from other mental illnesses, such as depression or anxiety. Additionally, there is a correlation between substance misuse and promiscuity. Bulimia nervosa was initially identified as a "chronic phase of anorexia nervosa" in 1979 by British psychiatrist Gerald Russell. The main goal of treatment is to get the patient to stop bingeing and purging. It has been demonstrated that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, like sertraline, citalopram, and fluoxetine, lessen bulimia nervosa symptoms. During this stage, patients overeat and resort to compensatory methods such as self-induced vomiting, laxatives, or extended periods of deprivation. Episodes of bingeing and purging that happen at least once a week for three months are usually linked to a diagnosis of bulimia. Even sometimes engaging in purging and bingeing can be hazardous and necessitate medical treatment. The more often the episodes occur, the worse the bulimia gets. To treat bulimia, family therapy and individual treatment are commonly employed. We go over the aetiology, epidemiology, current treatment, and state of bulimia nervosa in this review study. Future counseling-based research in our nation or state will evaluate patients' physical and mental health and generate more precise data on bulimia nervosa and its treatment, thanks to the assistance of our colleagues.

 

Author(s) Details

Yash Srivastav
Azad Institute of Pharmacy & Research, Lucknow, U.P., India.

 

Sajjad Alam
Azad Institute of Pharmacy & Research, Lucknow, U.P., India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mmrnp/v3/1512

Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinosis Across Species: A Fatal Hereditary Neurodegenerative Disease | Chapter 3 | An Overview of Disease and Health Research Vol. 1

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) is a rare, fatal inherited lysosomal storage disease characterised by progressive neurodegeneration and intracellular accumulation of autofluorescent lipopigment in neurons and other body cells. It is caused by pathogenic mutations of genes. Currently there are 14 forms of NCL designated as CLN1, CLN2, CLN3, CLN4, CLN5, CLN6, CLN7, CLN8, CLN9, CLN10, CLN11, CLN12, CLN13, and CLN14. Defects in different genes are the basis of the various forms of NCL. This chapter provides a review of the current knowledge on NCL, particularly the aetiology, transmission, epidemiology, predisposing factors, clinical signs, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, control, and treatment of the disease. It also outlines some challenges or gaps in current NCL research, discusses the significance of research findings in the broader context of neurodegenerative diseases, and recommends the way forward towards control of NCL.

 

Author (s) Details

Seleman Nasib Masola
Tanzania Livestock Research Institute (TALIRI), Southern Highlands Zone, P.O. Box 6191, Mbeya, Tanzania.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/aodhr/v1/5314

 

Understanding Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection: Epidemiology, Prevention, and Impact on Cervical Cancer | Chapter 6 | Research Perspectives of Microbiology and Biotechnology Vol. 7

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the most common viral sexually transmitted infection worldwide, contributing considerably to female malignancies. HPV is the causative agent of many dermatological and sexually transmitted illnesses. The most prevalent sexually transmitted disease is HPV infection, which is usually healed by the immune system. Although most HPV infections resolve on their own, chronic HPV infection is closely linked to an increased risk of cervical cancer and genital warts. HPV is linked to more than 90% of cervical malignancies, the fourth most deadly malignancy in women. Furthermore, HPV is associated with genital and upper aerodigestive tract cancers, as well as cutaneous and anogenital warts. The aim of the study is to review different aspects of HPV infection, including its ramifications and options for improvement. Organized cervical screening programs have proven to be more effective than opportunistic techniques, consistently reducing cervical cancer incidence and mortality. Over the last 40 years, affluent countries have seen significant decreases in these rates, owing primarily to rigorous cytological screening and vaccine campaigns. Vaccinations are highly successful in avoiding infections and illnesses caused by certain HPV types in women who have not previously been exposed to HPV. Despite the effective deployment of HPV vaccination programs in many countries, problems in prevention and treatment remain, particularly in developing and low-resource settings. HPV are DNA viruses that infect skin and mucosal cells. Statistical data from recent years demonstrate that using HPV vaccines to prevent infection and sickness caused by specific HPV genotypes is quite successful. Vaccination programs have been undertaken with great effectiveness in several nations throughout the world. It is concluded that understanding the prevalence and type distribution of HPV could help the vaccination program be implemented successfully. In order to increase awareness of this public health issue, educational health promotion projects for the general public should be made available.

 

Author (s) Details

 

R. Gopinath
Department of Microbiology, Government Theni Medical College, Theni, Tamil Nadu-625512, India.

 

M. Arundadhi
Department of Microbiology, Government Theni Medical College, Theni, Tamil Nadu-625512, India.

 

A. Dhanasezhian
Department of Microbiology, Government Theni Medical College, Theni, Tamil Nadu-625512, India.

 

G. Sucila Thangam
Department of Microbiology, Government Theni Medical College, Theni, Tamil Nadu-625512, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/rpmab/v7/2865

  

Key Aspects of the Epidemiology of Aujeszky’s Disease – Suid herpesvirus 1 Infection in Swine and Cattle: A Thorough Review | Chapter 7 | Contemporary Research and Perspectives in Biological Science Vol. 4

Respiratory airborne and genital infections have occurred worldwide in swine and cattle and there is strong evidence that vaginal infection of cattle was regularly sexually transmitted from sows by man.

Aujeszky's disease – infection with Suid herpesvirus 1 (SuHV1) – is an infection of pigs, which can infect several other animal species, regularly with a fatal outcome. It has been found worldwide but is now eradicated in several countries. Denmark is the country, where Aujeszky's disease has been studied most intensively, and the results from investigations of cattle have been of greatest importance for understanding the epidemiology of the infection in swine. Denmark was the first country to initiate and complete eradication. In this review, important epidemiological features are recapitulated at the end of each section or subsection. 

In cattle, the infection will most often give rise to an intense pruritus of a skin area, preferably on the head, chest, or hindquarters. Anterior localization of pruritus, on the head or chest, was found to be associated with a respiratory infection, while posterior pruritus was linked up with a vaginal infection. Pruritus must be considered a phantom sensation caused by stimulation or damage of the central nervous system including sensory ganglia. Respiratory infection of cattle is a dead-end infection and the source of infection is pigs infected by the respiratory route. Cattle at risk need not necessarily be placed near the infected pigs, as the virus in animals is determined by ventilators over distances of 10-20 meters, even from pigs in a neighboring room. Strong evidence was established of the condition that vaginal infection in cattle had regularly been sexually transmitted by men.

In swine, the infection was considered to be exclusively respiratory for decades, but naturally occurring genital infection was demonstrated in 1981. In herds with outbreaks in cattle characterized by pruritus on the hindquarters (vaginal infection), respiratory infection of pigs was never observed but a sow had characteristically been served by a foreign boar approx. one week earlier. In some such cases investigated, genital infection was confirmed in sows, which clearly associated cases in cattle with a posterior localization of pruritus to a concurrent genital infection of swine. Respiratory infection of pigs was demonstrated late in the history of the disease. 

The observed aggravation of the disease situation in pigs in Denmark clearly illustrated that SuHV1 can change in degree of pathogenicity over time. The changes occurred in two steps. In the early 1960s, respiratory strains developed, which were spread rapidly between herds due to animal contacts, mainly by trade, and later in the 1970s strains developed, which had an even higher degree of pathogenicity for cattle and swine. These new strains were found syncytial in contrast to earlier isolates from traditional outbreaks. The new respiratory syncytial strains had not been introduced from abroad as restriction fragment pattern analyses of virus DNA documented that they possessed special Danish characteristics.

The decisive spread of the respiratory infection among swine in a ventilated animal house was found to be by air currents over many meters determined by the ventilation system and not by close animal-to-animal contacts. During an acute outbreak in a swine herd, considerable amounts of virus would be blown out into the surroundings by ventilators, exposing other herds to the risk of infection. Early observations led to the conclusion that airborne spread between swine herds might occur over several kilometers and after eradication of the indigenous infection, new infections were introduced from abroad, which demonstrated that airborne spread of the virus between herds might take place over even 10 to 30 kilometers. Syncytial strains of SuHV1 have shown to possess a pronounced tendency to airborne transmission among swine herds, which implies that if a syncytial strain is first introduced into an area, it is likely to become the prevailing type in that area within a relatively short time.

It is a special conclusion from the epidemiological analyses that the SuHV1 infection, before the development of the respiratory infection, had been maintained in the first part of the 20th century in many countries as an unnoticed porcine genital infection.

 

Author (s) Details

Viggo Bitsch
The State Veterinary Serum Laboratory (National Veterinary Diagnostic and Research Institute), Denmark and The Danish Dairy Board, Cattle Health Laboratory, Denmark.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/crpbs/v4/2901

A Comprehensive Review of the Most Devastating and Catastrophic Return of Fear and Uncertainty: The Covid-19 Crisis | Chapter 11 | Disease and Health: Research Developments Vol. 7

 In 2019, the world witnessed the beginnings of a global pandemic in the form of a new respiratory illness. Covid-19, also known as coronavirus disease 2019, is a highly contagious infectious disease caused by the novel coronavirus “SARS-CoV-2”. Covid-19 is the news once again making headlines and announcing its comeback. It has had a profound impact since its December 2019 emergence from Wuhan, China. The 2019 outbreak was a turning point affecting nearly every country with varying degrees of devastating and catastrophic severity. It has led to significant worldwide mortality and morbidity causing millions of deaths and long-lasting health complications for many, directly or indirectly. The rapid spread worldwide, led to the World Health Organization calling it a “global pandemic” on March 11, 2020. It has reshaped the world’s healthcare systems, caused economic disruptions and forced significant changes in lifestyle. Since the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic up until the end of 2024, there have been over 800 million globally confirmed cases. During the same period, the world-wide death rate was just over 7 million with 13 billion Covid-19 vaccinations administered globally. The scar left by Covid-19 is witnessed on the face of every individual and every sector of the economy. Anytime a viral outbreak has the potential to take hold, a containment strategy must be followed in order to keep it from becoming a pandemic. This study is a detailed presentation of the covid crisis. Covid-19 is a viral zoonotic disease which spreads from animals-to-humans and humans-to-humans. It is caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. Covid-19 is an enveloped, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that attaches to the host cell through its spike protein which facilitates entry into the host cell via the ACE2 receptors. The virus primarily spreads through respiratory droplets of an infected person when coughing, sneezing or talking and can also spread via contact with contaminated surfaces. Asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic individuals can also spread the disease. Covid-19 has caused major social, economic, business and lifestyle disruptions. Covid-19 symptoms range from mild to severe and appear between 2-14 days after exposure. The most common symptoms include fever, cough, shortness of breath, fatigue, muscle or body aches, loss of taste or smell, headache, nausea or vomiting and diarrhea. In more severe cases, it can cause pneumonia, ARDS, organ failure and even death. A Covid-19 diagnosis is mainly done by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) - the gold standard of testing. Histologically, Covid-19 is responsible for many changes to the lungs, heart, kidneys, liver and GI tract. Symptoms lasting beyond the primary infection (“long-covid”) have shown to have a significant impact on an individual’s daily life. There are several factors that increase the risk of infection. Individuals who are over 60 versus younger individuals, individuals with comorbidities, those who are immunocompromised, those who smoke, use alcohol, lack exercise or are unvaccinated, all have a higher risk of infection. Infected individuals with underlying health conditions can experience a host of complications such as mild to severe organ impairment (heart, liver, kidney, brain), diabetes, dementia, neurological issues, GI issues, and hematological or muscular pain. The risk also increases for individuals who are lower on the socio-economic spectrum. One of the most prominent features of the Covid virus is its ability to mutate over time. This leads to the emergence of variants with different properties. Currently, there is no definite treatment for Covid-19. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the use of vaccines, antiviral drugs, immunomodulators, monoclonal antibodies and non-pharmaceutical interventions (wearing masks, social distancing, hand hygiene, quarantine, isolation) to reduce the transmission risk, prevent hospitalization and to avoid severe illness or death. The advent of highly efficacious vaccines using novel mRNA technology has seen the effects of the disease wane. The Covid-19 outbreak brought to light some very stark realities. It is abundantly clear there is no influence over animal biology, their disease reservoirs, the host type (bats, mosquitoes), virus mutation, etc. From a societal standpoint, there is no influence over social behavior (collective, individual), socio-economic disparities, age, gender, comorbidities or national resources. Looking at these factors alone, one can see the insurmountable task of controlling another outbreak. Covid-19 infection rates are slowing and the pandemic is giving way to an endemic. However, one question remains - how well prepared are we for the next major outbreak?

 

Author (s) Details

 

M Waheed Roomi
Rath Research Institute, San Jose, California. USA.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/dhrd/v7/4582

Mpox (Monkeypox): In- Depth Insight at the Current State of the Global Health Crisis - Etiology, Epidemiology, Detection, Treatment and Prevention Strategies | Chapter 4 | Disease and Health Research: New Insights Vol. 9

Mpox, formerly known as the Monkeypox Virus, is once again in the headlines announcing its comeback. While still recovering from the 2022 outbreak - the World Health Organization (WHO), for the second time in as many years has declared mpox to be a global health emergency. The same uphill battle is being faced at the outset of this recurring threat. Mpox is a known quantity to the scientific community and has been for more than 60 years. First identified in humans during the 1970s, mpox is a viral zoonotic infectious disease transmitted from animals to humans and humans to humans. It is caused by the mpox virus - an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the orthopoxvirus family. It is largely relegated to the tropical rainforests of Central and West Africa. It has been mostly ignored in Europe and the Americas until just recently when it has generated worldwide attention. Cases of the mpox infection first appeared sporadically amongst gay and bisexual men with Europe first reporting cases in mid-2022. Shortly thereafter, occurrences were seen in the metropolitan areas of New York, Chicago, San Francisco and Los Angeles. The 2022 outbreak was a turning point with over 100 countries reporting cases which had not previously been seen before. Mpox infections are transmitted through close personal contact with infected individuals, infected animals or mpox-tainted materials. The WHO has declared mpox a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern”. There are two distinct s of the mpox virus - Clade I and Clade II. Clade I’s origins have historically been linked to the Congo Basin, while Clade II’s origins have historically been linked to Western Africa. In 2022 the global outbreak was caused by Clade IIb and most recently, by Clade Ib in 2024. Mpox is genetically similar to smallpox. Although no treatment for the mpox virus exists, supportive care, antivirals and vaccines developed for smallpox have proven effective. Individuals infected with mpox demonstrate skin rashes and mucosal lesions accompanied by fever, chills, headaches, muscle aches, back pain, low energy, sore throat, and cough. These symptoms are similar to those infected with smallpox, but much more attenuated in nature. After a 3-week incubation period, mpox goes away on its own in approximately 2-5 weeks. Diagnostic testing and disease confirmation are performed via RT-PCR testing of genetic material from the infected areas and through the presence of lymphadenopathy (i.e. enlarged lymph nodes). This distinct symptom is what differentiates those who are infected with mpox versus those who are infected with either smallpox or chickenpox.

 

Author (s) Details

 

M Waheed Roomi
Spandidos Publications, 5-6, King Street Cloisters, Clifton Walk, London W6 0GY, United Kingdom.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/dhrni/v9/2652

Mandibular Fractures | Book Publisher International

Introduction: The mandible is the only symmetrical, medial, mobile bone of the face located on the lower and anterior level of the face. It is susceptible to trauma, including fractures.

General: The mandible is composed of three distinct regions that converge at the mandibular angle, and predominates in young adult males (75.5%) [13] The mean age of the subjects was 22.3 ± 12 years (range: 2–72 years), with MVAs representing the main etiology (47%) [15]. Mandibular fractures can be partial or total, isolated or associated, and parasymphyseal fractures are the most common (39%) [15].

Clinical Evaluation: Facial edema was predominant in 90.4% [15]. Furthermore, 66.7% of patients [42] with bifocal fractures undergo orthopontomograms. CT allows for precise analysis of the fracture lines' location, and the different fragments displacements.

Treatment: The management of mandibular fractures encompasses a range of treatment modalities, including emergency, skeletal and complication treatments. Complications occurred in 3.1% of cases, with a success rate of 95.4% [25].

Conclusion: Mandibular fractures are a prevalent type of fracture that occurs in adolescent males. CT is the reference examination. The most common fracture is that of the parasymphysis, and its management must be expeditious in order to avoid complications.

 

Author (s) Details

 

Alain Patrick MAKUNGU
Department of Stomatology and Maxillofacial Surgery, Owendo Teaching Hospital, BP 8127 Libreville, Gabon.

 

Frida NIMY MBUNGU MIKEMOU
Department of Stomatology and Maxillofacial Surgery, Owendo Teaching Hospital, BP 8127 Libreville, Gabon.

 

Lyvana Hornelia ZUE EYA
Department of Stomatology and Maxillofacial Surgery, Owendo Teaching Hospital, BP 8127 Libreville, Gabon.

 

Léila Carmen MANDZA
Department of Stomatology and Maxillofacial Surgery, Owendo Teaching Hospital, BP 8127 Libreville, Gabon.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-93-49238-15-2

An Update on Situation and Management Challenges of Recurrent Ebolavirus Disease in the Democratic Republic of Congo | Chapter 3 | Recent Updates in Disease and Health Research Vol. 6

 

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is facing its tenth Ebolavirus (EVD) outbreak since August 2018. Ebola virus disease is a rare but deadly disease in people and non-human primates. The current Ebolavirus disease (EVD) outbreak in the provinces of North Kivu and Ituri is the tenth outbreak affecting the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC); the first outbreak occurring in a war context, and the second most deadly Ebolavirus outbreak on record following the 2014 outbreak in West Africa. The primary aim of the study is to give an update on the situation of recurrent Ebola virus disease in the Democratic Republic of Congo and provide insight into the challenges associated with managing and controlling the disease. The DRC government’s response consisted of applying a package of interventions including detection and rapid isolation of cases, contact tracing, population mapping, and identification of high-risk areas to inform a coordinated effort. The coordinated effort was to screen, ring vaccinate, and conduct laboratory diagnoses using GeneXpert (Cepheid) polymerase chain reaction. The effort also included ensuring safe and dignified burials and promoting risk communication, community engagement, and social mobilization. Following the adoption of the “Monitored Emergency Use of Unregistered Products Protocol,” a randomized controlled trial of four investigational treatments (mAb114, ZMapp, and REGN- EB3 and Remdesivir) was carried out with all consenting patients with laboratory-confirmed EVD. REGN-EB3 and mAb114 showed promise as treatments for EVD. In addition, one investigational vaccine (rVSV-ZEBOV-GP) was used first, followed by a second prophylactic vaccine (Ad26.ZEBOV/MVA-BN-Filo) to reinforce the prevention. Although the provision of clinical supportive care remains the cornerstone of EVD outbreak management, the DRC response faced daunting challenges including general insecurity, violence and community resistance, appalling poverty, and entrenched distrust of authority. Ebolavirus remains a public health threat. Fully curative treatment is unlikely to be a game-changer given the settings of transmission, zoonotic nature, limits of the effectiveness of any therapeutic intervention, and timing of presentation.

 

Author(s) Details:-

 

Joseph Inungu
College of Health Professions, Central Michigan University, Michigan, United States.

 

Kechi Iheduru-Anderson
Central Michigan University, Michigan, United States.

 

Ossam J. Odio
Department of Internal Medicine, Medical School Hospital, University of Kinshasa, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo.

 

Please see the link here:  https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/rudhr/v6/8299E

Public Health Perspectives and Manifestations of Covid-19 | Chapter 2 | Clinical Manifestations of Covid-19: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach

 Paraphrasing from common parlance, “a virus’ name precedes it”. Due to the name of its causative organism; most would consider COVID-19 as a primarily respiratory illness. This is substantiated by the readily obvious respiratory symptoms and the popular use of facemasks as a means of prevention.COVID–19 presents as a respiratory disease with a multi-systemic representation, multi-sectorial importance and a multidimensional impact on humanity.

This chapter brings to bear, the public health manifestations of COVID-19 providing an overview of the anthropologic, epidemiologic, Global Health, etiologic, pathogenetic, diagnostic and health system concerns and perspectives since the virus was discovered in the last days of 2019.

 

Author(s) Details'

Oladipo Vincent Akinmade
USAID Integrated Health Program Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

 

Ugochukwu Anthony Eze
Department of Ophthalmology, Federal Medical Centre, Asaba, Nigeria and Honorary Supervisor University of Edinburgh Masters of Surgery Program in Clinical Ophthalmology, United Kingdom.

 

Please see the book here:  https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/mono/978-81-973195-5-6/CH2

A Review of Epidemiology of Viral Hemorrhagic Fever | Chapter 10 | Disease and Health Research - New Insights Vol. 1

 

The pathophysiology, aetiology, diagnosis, treatment, symptoms, and indicators of virus hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) are all covered in this review article. Acute zoonotic diseases known as viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) initially appear to be related to platelet malfunction or destruction. The term "Viral Hemorrhagic Fever" (VHF) describes a severe feverish sickness characterized by aberrant vascular control, vascular damage, and hemorrhagic symptoms. Multiple viruses belonging to distinct families are the cause of this illness. The viruses that cause VHF are categorized into seven distinct families according to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses' most recent classification: Hantaviridae, Nairoviridae, Filoviridae, Phenuiviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Arenavidae, and Flaviviridae are the families involved. The concept of virus hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) originated in the 1930s when Soviet researchers were studying hantaviral hemorrhagic fever (HF) with renal dysfunction. Dengue fever/Dengue haemorrhagic fever and Kyasanur forest sickness are the two most common viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHF) in India, that are transmitted by arthropod vectors. There is currently no effective cure for VHFs. Some people have responded well to ribavirin treatment for Lassa fever or HFRS. The diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia (CCHF) in India is greatly hampered by the co-occurring symptoms of hemorrhagic fevers such as dengue, Kyasanur forest sickness, Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever, and other illnesses such as leptospirosis, meningococcal infections, and malaria. The pathophysiologic features of VHF include microvascular instability, increased vascular permeability, and poor hemostasis, albeit the underlying processes differ depending on the virus. Additional randomized controlled studies are needed to find out more about the best way to treat viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs). We want to investigate viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) further.

 

Author (s) Details

 

Mr. Yash Srivastav (Assistant Professor)
Azad Institute of Pharmacy & Research, Lucknow, U.P, India.

 

Mohd. Faijan Mansoori
Azad Institute of Pharmacy & Research, Lucknow, U.P, India.

 

Vipin Kumar Pandey
School of Pharmacy, Sangam University, Bhilwara, Rajasthan, India.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/dhrni/v1/1511

Condensed Statement: Critical Framework of the Diagnosis along with Management of Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) | Chapter 8 | Advanced Concepts in Pharmaceutical Research Vol. 8

 Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) refers to the condition that causes ulcers in the lining of the digestive tract. A common condition in the world, Peptic Ulcer condition is sometimes referred to as stomach ulcers or peptic ulcers. This review study covers the pathophysiology, aetiology, medical therapy, diagnosis, symptoms, and signs of Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD). The word "peptic" comes from the hormone pepsin, which is essential in causing mucosal breakdown. PUD is caused by a defect in the mucosa of the stomach or duodenum that extends beyond the muscularis mucosa. PUD is the consequence of an imbalance between the aggressive and defensive elements impacting the mucosa, which occurs after gastric mucosal lesions. Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is a widespread ailment affecting 5–10% of the world's population, with notable racial and regional variations. As a result of an imbalance between the aggressive and defensive elements impacting the mucosa, comes gastric mucosal injuries. Millions of healthcare dollars are frequently spent on treating gastric ulcers, which are a typical clinical presentation in the US. Esophageal Ulcer and Duodenal Ulcers are also two common types of Peptic Ulcer that are affecting the global population. The most common cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in the Western world is bleeding from peptic ulcers (PUs). High rates of morbidity, mortality, and medical costs are linked to it. To learn more about the best course of action for treating peptic ulcer disease (PUD), further randomized controlled trials are required.

Author(s) Details:

Yash Srivastav,
Azad Institute of Pharmacy & Research, Lucknow, U.P, India.

Mohd. Faijan Mansoori,
Azad Institute of Pharmacy & Research, Lucknow, U.P, India.

Abdul Hameed,
Azad Institute of Pharmacy & Research, Lucknow, U.P, India.

Afreen Hashmi,
Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute of Technology, Lucknow, U.P, India.

Mohd. Imtiyaz Ahmad,
Azad Institute of Pharmacy & Research, Lucknow, U.P, India.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/ACPR-V8/article/view/14045

Introduction to Helminthology | Book Publisher International

 "Introduction to Helminthology" provides a comprehensive overview of parasitic worms, or helminths, encompassing their biology, ecology, and impact on human and animal health. The book explores the diversity of helminths, ranging from nematodes to cestodes and trematodes, and examines their life cycles, transmission dynamics, and interactions with hosts. Key topics include the epidemiology and control of helminthic infections, the evolution of host-parasite relationships, and the role of helminths in shaping ecosystems. Drawing on recent research and classic studies, this text serves as an essential resource for students, researchers, and healthcare professionals interested in helminthology and parasitology.

Author(s) Details:

Nayan K. Prasad,
Department of Zoology, R.R.M. Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal.

Kumari Shachi,
Department of Zoology, K.S. College, Laheriasarai, L.N. Mithila University, Darbhanga - 846004, India.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/ITH/article/view/13794

Study about Young Women to Specifics of Human Sexuality/Reproduction | Chapter 11 | Advancement and New Understanding in Medical Science Vol. 5

This paper explains first, concerning physiological vaginal first birth (primiparity) why young women should consider delivering her first baby before the age of 26 (there is a linear association between maternal ages and healthy deliveries). Second, because of the comparatively large human fetal brain, nutritional maternal-foetal exchanges are twice those of other mammals (per body-mass ratios). There is a lack of awareness among young of the very specific reproductive and sexual strategies of humans as compared to other mammals. Homo sapiens appeared some 300,000 years ago and our female ancestors delivered obligatorily vaginally prior to the development of medical interventions (such as caesarean sections, a safe procedure only since the 1960’s). Furthermore, women are unique among the 4,300 mammal species suffer from a harmful complication of pregnancy, preeclampsia (especially during a first pregnancy). But, as the human species has retained the hemochorial placenta, that first appeared in mammalian evolution, women face the great challenge of immunological tolerance towards the male partner’s tissues during the nine months of gestation. This major challenge occurs during the first pregnancy and tolerance is related to semen exposure prior to conception.  In subsequent additional pregnancies, immunological recognition is largely achieved through the initial pregnancy. This is why for a first pregnancy (nulliparous woman or multiparous woman with a new male partner), it is preferable to conceive after a delay of 6 months of non-barrier contraception before planning conception. Short-term sexual cohabitation after the couple's constitution (partially recognized male tissue) may result in incomplete embryo implantation, which can cause problems including early-onset preeclampsia and/or fetal growth restriction. Third, to have a baby neither too small, nor too big, women overweight or obese at the beginning of any pregnancy must gain less weight during the 9 months of gestation as compared to their leaner counterparts. The optimal gestational weight gain may be acknowledged during the first prenatal visit, with, a goal to achieve during the next 7- 8 months of pregnancy.

Author(s) Details:

Pierre-Yves Robillard,
Service de Néonatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, BP 350, 97448 Saint-Pierre Cedex, La Réunion, France and Centre d’Etudes Périnatales Océan Indien (CEPOI), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, BP 350, 97448 Saint-Pierre cedex, La Réunion, France.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/ANUMS-V5/article/view/13340

Women and Pregnancies as an Immediate Target against the Obesity Epidemic | Chapter 14 | Advancement and New Understanding in Medical Science Vol. 1

People with obesity worldwide have become a major challenge in this 21st century with an apparent irresistible rise of this epidemic since the 1970’s. Nowadays, it is evaluated that obese people (≥ 30 kg/m²) represent some one billion inhabitants (out of seven) on this planet. The author wishes to enlarge an important current debate among obstetricians trying to sensitize specialists of obesity/endocrinology/ nutrition, and make them aware of a possible very important debate: having a “normal shaped” baby (neither too small, nor too big, 10% of SGA, small for gestational age and 10% of LGA, large for gestational age), is possible by an optimal gestational weight gain (optGWG) during pregnancy. This is a simple- mathematical linear equation, y= ax+b (y being optimal gestational weight gain, optGWG, x being pre-pregnancy body mass index, ppBMI). Beginning with severe obesity (36 kg/m²), women should not gain weight during their pregnancy, while they should lose weight in higher BMIs (e.g., losing 6 kg for a 40 kg/m² morbid obese). This is predictable since the first trimester of pregnancy. This chapter concluded that besides actively counter balancing morbid effects of high BMIs in pregnancies (and, importantly for the future of mankind, by avoiding a lot of macrosomic and LGA newborns), should imply new habits in women’s future lives afterwards.

Author(s) Details:

Pierre-Yves Robillard,
Service de Néonatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, BP 350, 97448 Saint-Pierre Cedex, La Réunion, France and Centre d’Etudes Périnatales Océan Indien (CEPOI), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, BP 350, 97448 Saint-Pierre Cedex, La Réunion, France.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/ANUMS-V1/article/view/13031

A Retrospective Analysis on the Urgent Need to Optimize Gestation Weight in Overweight/Obese Women to Lower Maternal-Fetal Morbidities: 59000 Singleton Term Pregnancies | Chapter 1 | Advancement and New Understanding in Medical Science Vol. 1

Objective: This study primarily focuses on examining the criticalities of optimizing gestational weight for obese women to reduce fatal morbidities. We retrospectively did a simulation applying the optimal gestational weight gain (optGWG) equation (that we proposed in 2018) on our population, and observed if its effect on maternal/fetal morbidities in singleton term pregnancies (≥37 weeks).

Design: This is a Retrospective observational study.

Setting: The setting for this study was in a single large tertiary maternity unit in Reunion Island, Indian Ocean, overseas French department.

Population or Sample: All consecutive singleton births delivered at the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Hospitalier Sud Reunion's maternity was the chosen population for this study. A standardized epidemiological perinatal database was used here.

Methods: This study employed mathematical simulation on a 19-year historical cohort (2001-2019)'. Data was presented as numbers and proportions for categorical variables and as mean and Standard Deviation (SD) for continuous ones.

Main Outcome Measures: Five Maternal/fetal morbidities were measured for this study.

Results: Beginning with overweight women, and enlarging the effect with the rise of different obesities (class I to III) and considering maternal pre- pregnancy BMI (ppBMI), individualized counselling women on their GWG (optimal gestational weight gain, optGWG) lowers significantly maternal/ fetal morbidities: in a logistic regression model among overweight/obese women, with the outcome optGWG, several morbidities have a negative coefficient as independent factors: cesarean-section, birthweight ≥ 4000 g, term preeclampsia, lowering the effect of rising maternal ppBMI per increment of 5 kg/m² (coefficient -0.13), all p < 0.001. Dietary and lifestyle interventional studies have reduced GWG by 0.7kg or 3.7kg and had no effect on other pregnancy and birth outcomes including GDM, PE, PIH, LGA and macrosomic infants.

We propose as a prediction to be verified in future prospective studies that a follow-up and counselling since the first prenatal visit should also lower gestational diabetes mellitus rates.

Conclusion: We may have significant health (and cost) benefits by lowering c-section rates, term preeclampsia, macrosomic babies and LGA babies in overweight/obese women and low-birthweight babies in lean women. We may have much to win from reducing weight gain during pregnancy in overweight/obese women. It is urgent to verify and establish in all continents the specific linear curve of optGWG for each geographic/ethnic area.

Author(s) Details:

Pierre-Yves Robillard,
Service de Néonatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, Saint-Pierre Cedex, La Réunion, France and Centre d'Etudes Périnatales Océan Indien (CEPOI), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, Saint-Pierre Cedex, La Réunion, France.

Gustaaf Dekker,
Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, University of Adelaide, Robinson Institute, Lyell McEwin Hospital, Australia.

Malik Boukerrou,
Centre d’Etudes Périnatales Océan Indien (CEPOI), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, Saint-Pierre Cedex, La Réunion, France and Service de Gynécologie et Obstétrique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, BP 350, 97448 Saint-Pierre Cedex, La Réunion, France.

Brahim Boumahni,
Service de Neonatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Reunion, Saint-Pierre Cedex, La Reunion, France.

Thomas C Hulsey,
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown WV, USA.

Marco Scioscia,
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Policlinico of Abano Terme, Abano Terme (PD), Italy.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/ANUMS-V1/article/view/12998