Mucosal Immunity and Novel Prophylactic Strategy to Combat COVID-19 | Chapter 1 | Disease and Health Research: New Insights Vol. 9

The study aims to explore the role of mucosal immunity in combating COVID-19 with the objective of developing novel prophylactic and therapeutic strategies. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) emerged as an expeditiously growing pandemic, in the human population caused by the highly transmissible RNA virus severe acute respiratory syndrome of coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In clinical settings, SARS-CoV-2 infection can be elucidated on the basis of amplification of viral RNA from nasopharyngeal swab samples, and saliva tests (less invasive in nature), but sometimes faeces tests show the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA even prior to symptoms appear and also long after a patient has tested negative from a conventional swab. The interplay of SARS-CoV-2 infection predominantly occurs at the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor and transmembrane protease serine-type 2 positive (ACE2 + TMPRSS2+) epithelial cells of the mucosal surfaces like nasal, oral mucosae, and/or the conjunctival surface of the eye where it interacts with the immune system. The largest integrant of the entire immune system is the mucosal immune system which is augmented to provide a defence mechanism against various environmental pathogens at the mucosae. The primary host response towards the pathogen starts from an immune microenvironment of nasopharynx-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). The presence of exhausted lymphocytes, lymphopenia, pneumonia, and cytokine storm is the hallmark of COVID-19. The multifaceted nature of co-morbidity factors like obesity and type 2 diabetes and their effects on immunity can alter the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Adipose tissue is a crucial endocrine organ that secretes a plethora of factors like adipokines, cytokines, and chemokines that have a profound impact on metabolism and augment the expression of mucosal pro-inflammatory cytokines, like tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and the interleukin-12 (IL-12)/IL-23. Mucosal immunization could be a superior approach to activate mucosal and systemic immune responses against pathogenic invasion at mucosal surface entry ports. Mucosal vaccines are also able to generate strong systemic humoral immunity—required to neutralize any virus particle that dodges the primary immune response. In the case of various vaccines, the weakening of vaccine-induced immunity is associated with breakthrough infections. On the other hand, several lines of evidence suggest that mucosal immunization via natural infection or vaccination induces a more robust immune response in respiratory mucosa, which is the prime target of SARS-CoV-2 infection. To develop an efficient vaccine against mucosal pathogens, contemplation of the design of the delivery route, immunomodulatory features, and adjuvants are very important. In this article,  evidence was provided to understand the significant role of mucosal immunity, along with secretory and circulating immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies in generating a novel mucosal vaccine against COVID-19. Moreover, along with mucosal vaccines, a look must be given to combination treatment strategies with plant bioactive molecules. Glycan-binding lectins against viral proteins for targeted activation of the mucosal immune response are one such example. These may play a promising role in halting this emerging virus. In this review, the different aspect of mucosal immunization and their probable prospect against the COVID-19 pandemic have been summarized. Further study on the formulation of nasal spray or inhaler with such plant bioactive molecules or engineered antibodies will be a potent therapeutic and prophylactic strategy in the prevention of a larger array of SARS-CoV2 with reduced side effects.

 

Author (s) Details

 

Swapan K. Chatterjee
Molecular Pharma Pvt. Ltd., 102A Windsor Palace, 6A, Iron Side Road, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India.

 

Snigdha Saha
Molecular Pharma Pvt. Ltd., 102A Windsor Palace, 6A, Iron Side Road, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India

 

Maria Nilda M. Munoz
Cagayan State University, Tuguegarao City & De La Salle University, Manila 0900, Philippines.

 

Please see the book here:- https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/dhrni/v9/2196

Potential of Sphingosine-1-phosphate in Preventing SARS-CoV-2 Infection by Stabilizing and Protecting Endothelial Cells | Chapter 1 | Diagnostic and Treatment Advances in COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2

 Coronavirus disease 2019, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has spread worldwide, resulting in over 250 million infections and >5 million deaths. Most antiviral drugs and vaccines have shown limited efficacy against SARS-CoV-2. Clinical data revealed that except for the large number of self-healing mild cases, moderate and severe cases mostly survived after supportive treatment but not specific drug administration or vaccination. The endothelial system is the first physiological barrier, and its structural stability is of critical importance in conferring disease resistance. Membrane lipid components, particularly sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), play a central role in stabilizing the cell membrane.

Here, we used “Boolean Operators” such as AND, OR, and NOT, to search for relevant research articles in PubMed, then reviewed the potential of S1P in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection by stabilizing the endothelial system, this is the major aim of this review work.

Reportedly, vasculitis and systemic inflammatory vascular diseases are caused by endothelial damage resulting from SARS-CoV-2 infection. S1P, S1P receptor (SIPR), and signaling were involved in the process of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and S1P potentially regulated the function of EC barrier, in turn, inhibited the SARS-CoV-2 to infect the endothelial cells, and ultimately has the promising therapeutic value to coronavirus disease 2019.

Taken together, we conclude that maintaining or administering a high level of S1P will preserve the integrity of the EC structure and function, in turn, lowering the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and reducing complications and mortality.

Author(s) Details:

Zhang Rongzhi,
Department of Anesthesiology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, Gansu, China.

Wang Qiang,
Gansu Medical College, Pingliang, Gansu, China.

Yang Jianshe,
Department of Anesthesiology, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, Lanzhou, Gansu, China, Gansu Medical College, Pingliang, Gansu, China and Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.

Please see the link here: https://stm.bookpi.org/DTACSC/article/view/9551

Recent Pharmacological Advances of Drugs and Vaccines Used in COVID-19 | Chapter 13 | Highlights on Medicine and Medical Science Vol. 6

A pandemic disease caused by a coronavirus named Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is spreading over the world, causing asymptomatic severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) termed SARS-CoV-2. Finding effective medications for preventive and treatment offers a significant problem for scientists, researchers, and practitioners. Clinicians are striving to acquire accurate information for efficient treatment and establishing an appropriate vaccine system for the prevention of illness spread by using a large amount of clinical data obtained from many SARS-CoV-2 afflicted persons. Because no effective medicines to treat and prevent SARS-CoV-2 have been established to date, there is a chance for new virology researchers to make an attempt at this critical time. Two strategies are now in use. The first is to create entirely new molecules to prevent and treat this disease, while the second is to evaluate the efficacy of currently available antivirals and other medications for possible recovery and prevention. This includes evaluating a variety of antivirals (Remdesivir, Favipiravir, and others) as well as antimalarials (Chloroquine, Hydroxychloroquine, and others) for prospective therapy. According to studies, the antiviral Remdesivir is the most promising treatment. Remdesivir has demonstrated that it has the capability to regulate COVID-19 in vitro. Randomized trials are now being conducted on the medication. Different antiviral therapy options are used under an urgent exploration plan until a generally acknowledged medicine reaches the global market. In this chapter, we look at the most recent research findings on COVID-19 systematic therapies from a variety of research labs throughout the world. The chapter also includes a description of diverse clinical research experiences, interim results, and therapy recommendations to battle the novel coronavirus outbreak based on pharmacotherapeutic analysis, as well as insights into global efforts to produce a COVID vaccine.

Author (s) Details

Edwin Dias
Department of Paediatrics, Srinivas Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Mangalore, Karnataka State, India and College of Allied Health Sciences, Srinivas University, Mangalore, India.

Archana Aithal
Srinivas Institute of Pharmacy, India.

Ranjit Shail
NHS, South London / St. George’s University of London, UK.

View Book :- https://stm.bookpi.org/HMMS-V6/article/view/2114

Decoding the Cardio-vascular Pathophysiology in COVID-19 | Chapter 1 | Highlights on Medicine and Medical Science Vol. 4

 The global pandemic caused by Coronavirus 19 (SARS-CoV-19) spread quickly and affected the entire world, with the most cases reported in the United States, India, and Brazil. According to WHO data as of September 24, 2020, Coronavirus 19 (SARS-CoV-19) infected 31,664,104 people and killed 972,221 [1]. Globally, the age-normalized death rate from cardio-vascular disease (CVD) is 272 per one lakh population, while in India, it is 235 per one lakh population [2]. People with heart disease are twelve times more likely than healthy people to die and six times more likely to be hospitalized as a result of severe coronavirus disease (Covid-19) [3]. Other extra-pulmonary complications of Covid 19 disease include acute renal injury, gastrointestinal consequences, hepatocellular damage, hyperglycemia, ketosis, ocular complications, dermatologic manifestations, thrombotic sequelae, acute coronary syndromes, myocardial dysfunction and arrhythmia, neurological illnesses, and so on [4]. The most common covid-related cardiac abnormality is acute cardiac injury, which affects 8-12 percent of all patients [5]. Acute cardiac injury is defined by an elevated level of cardiac troponin [6]. Coronavirus increases pro-inflammatory markers, T-lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity, sympathetic activity, plaque rupture, myocardial cell invasion, and direct myocardial damage, which is exacerbated by the cytokine storm syndrome. Acute cardiac injury, acute coronary event, left ventricular systolic dysfunction, acute left ventricular failure, diastolic dysfunction [7], brain medullary cardiorespiratory dysfunction and congestive heart failure (CHF) [8-12], ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction, cardiogenic shock are all COVID-19-related cardiovascular complications. Pericarditis, pericardial effusion, cardiac tamponade, venous thromboembolism, and cardiomyopathies mimicking STEMI presentations, sinus bradycardia [13], arrhythmia, cardiac conduction abnormalities [14], and sudden death [15]. A thorough understanding of the COVID-19 effect on the cardiovascular system is critical for optimum treatment of covid-affected patients and the prevention of morbidity and mortality. Because the pathophysiology of myocardial complications is still unknown, we attempted to decode the cardiovascular pathophysiology in Covid 19 infection.

Author (S) Details

Smita R. Sorte
Department of Physiology, AIIMS, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India.

Dr. Sachin B. Rathod
Department of Physiology, Indira Gandhi Government Medical College, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

Dr. Ashwini Patil
Department of Physiology, Symbiosis Medical college for Women, Symbiosis International (DU), Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Dr. Ashok Ahirwar
Department of Biochemistry, AIIMS, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

View Book :- https://stm.bookpi.org/HMMS-V4/article/view/1684