Neural Network Classification of Corals | Chapter 7 | International Research in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 7

 The recording of ecological change over time is a key challenge of contemporary ecology. The most diverse and complex of marine environments are coral reefs. In addition, coral reefs worldwide are suffering a serious decline due to the detrimental synergistic effects of global climate change, ocean acidification and seawater warming, intensified by anthropogenic eutrophication and pollution. These factors influence the decrease in live reef cover and the decrease in coral species, depending on site exposure to stressors, taking place at various rates and grades of severity. Any remediation steps include intensive monitoring, over long periods and short intervals, at numerous locations. The time-consuming, boring, manual classification of coral species and their real-time abundance in many reefs is a daunting task that is almost impossible. Deep learning (DL) has unique features for streamlining the description, analysis and monitoring of coral reefs, saving time and achieving greater reliability and accuracy compared to error-prone human results, and for managing and analysing the vast quantities of resulting data. Live coral cover and coral biodiversity are two key reef health indicators. The main objective of this analysis is to highlight the intensity and reliability of the deep learning approach to the documentation of the features of coral reefs, based on the assessment of the published application of this method to the definition of coral reefs and their assemblages of organisms. We evaluate the latest trends in the sector, describe its present constraints and future developments.

Author(s) Details

Alina Raphael
The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 5290002, Israel.

Zvy Dubinsky
The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 5290002, Israel.

Nathan Netanyahu
Department of Computer Science, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 5290002, Israel.

David Iluz
The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 5290002, Israel.

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Study on Application of the Electrical Resistivity in Building Foundation Study around Led School Area in Bishini, Northwestern Nigeria | Chapter 6 | International Research in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 7

 For the preparation of geoelectric sections along four cross sections, the findings from the 2-D interpretation of the VES data were used. The interpreted results showed that three to five layers of geoelectric sections consist of: top soil, laterite, lateritic clay, weathered layer and fresh basement. For the top soil, the resistivity value and subsurface layer thickness ranged between 191.7 Ω m and 8146 Ω m and 0.3 m to 7.0 m respectively. Resistivity values ranging from 1000 Ω m to 1627.3 Ω m and thickness from 1.8 m to 2.5 m were present in the laterite layer. The resistivity of the weathered layer ranged from 33.5 Ω m to 850 Ω m with a 3.6 m to 44 m thickness. The resistivity of the bedrock ranged from 1238.3 to 33438.6 by Ωm. The thinnest sequence of loose overburden materials and fresh basement at the shallowest depth were revealed by geoelectric sections along profile 4 and 1. For building growth, the area covered by these profiles is appropriate. Because of relatively thick weathered soils, building creation should not be located along profiles 2 and 3. The region can, however, be considered for citing the borehole to harness its capacity for groundwater.

Author(s) Details

Olufemi F. Ojo
Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.

Abel O. Talabi
Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.

Lekan O. Afolagboye
Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.

Akintunde A. Oyedele
Department of Physics, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.

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Advanced Research on Potential of Remote Sensing - A Review Based on Natural Disasters Occurred during the Last Decade in Chile | Chapter 5 | International Research in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 7

 Chile has been suffering from a number of natural disasters over the past decade. Via natural disasters that have occurred in Chile over the past ten years, it is demonstrated how observations gained by various currently available Remote Sensing sensors have been successfully used on many occasions. The examples given in this article are based on the February 2010 earthquake and tsunami and the 2008 and 2011 volcanic eruptions, 2012 forest fires and 2010 droughts. In addition, the most important remote sensing platforms for current disaster management are also presented. Although the most well-known public application is damage registration, Remote Sensing can also be used in all the other stages of a modern disaster management cycle: prevention, preparedness, response and recovery. This article therefore also explains how and under which situations remotely sensed data can be useful. As Remote Sensing can be considered one of the most effective instruments in the field of natural disaster management, we conclude that its use must be increased in a country like Chile to resolve any kind of natural disaster and its devastating effects. Remote sensing is expected to be an even stronger and more useful instrument in the management of natural disasters in the future, owing to the availability of continuously collected images and increased spatial and spectral resolution of satellite observations.

Author(s) Details

Guido Staub
Department for Geodetic Sciences and Geomatics, Universidad de Concepción - Campus Los Ángeles, J. A. Coloma 0201, Los Ángeles, Chile.

Hans-Peter Bähr
Institute for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Englerstr. 7, Karlsruhe, Germany.

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Judaic, Christian and Islamic Leaders on Mitigating Human-induced Climate Change | Chapter 4 | International Research in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 7

In order to reduce the detrimental effects of human-forced climate change, leaders of Judaism, Christianity and Islam have openly urged intervention. Rabbi Arthur Waskow, Pope Francis, and Patriarch Bartholomew were especially prominent prior to, during, and after the 21st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. A party of Islamic clerics, leaders of organisations, and academics who participated in issuing a climate change declaration three months before COP 21 were also prominent. These leaders, persuaded by the Earth sciences, expressed their faith-based rationales for acting locally and globally, as seen in the papers discussed in this essay. Examples of organisations inspired by the values of their representatives indicate their ability to be educated by scientists. These religious leaders and environmental organisations need well-substantiated findings from data gathered to address unsubstantiated arguments by climate sceptics and deniers in order to function effectively. Earth scientists will find partners among religious leaders and organisations in the quest for a thriving world. While remaining alert to scientific findings, world religious scholars need to delve deeper into the practises they concentrate on and make promising insights known to leaders who can educate, preach, act, and pray for their community members. In the search for a thriving Planet-our shared habitat, Earth scientists will find these religious scholars, officials, and affiliated groups allies.

Author(s) Details

Jame Schaefer
Department of Theology, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA.

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Analyzing the Soil Water Characteristic Curve of an Unsaturated Soil under Low Matric Suction Ranges and Different Stress Conditions | Chapter 3 | International Research in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 7

Under low matric suction ranges and various stress conditions, this analysis aims to examine the soil water characteristic curve of an unsaturated soil. For the design of geotechnical and geo-environmental structures such as road pavements, foundations, and ground dams, accurate assessment of unsaturated soil properties is important. One of the main characteristics of unsaturated soil mechanics is water retention behaviour in soils that is used to predict stability or infiltration problems in the soil. Therefore, the unsaturated soil properties have been recorded by several experimental works, and the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) test has significantly contributed to the understanding of matric suction. Because conventional instruments in SWCC tests are unable to apply stress, some researchers have developed suction-controlled triaxial devices that conduct SWCC tests under different stress states. For the understanding of the hydro-mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils, the determination of SWCCs under stress conditions such as those in the field is key. In both drying and wetting conditions, this study conducted SWCC tests of unsaturated silt soil in low matric suction ranges. Under one-dimensional and isotropic confining stresses varying from 50 to 450 kPa, the SWCCs were measured. Instead of the high air inlet ceramic disc, the micro porous membrane approach was used to control relatively low matric suction. The controlled matrix suction range was from 0 to 20 kPa. The research revealed that the measured SWCC seems to be influenced by the in-fluence of stress conditions in low matric suction ranges. Isotropic confining stress caused the specimen's void structure to become dense and soil moisture flow movement also decreased as a result. For both models, the R2 (0.99) values obtained clearly show that the fitted values and the experimental data sets are almost located around the line of perfect agreement. Obviously, the water retention activity was high, and the point of reference to the air intake value was greater. Furthermore, the study indicates that the existing methods adopted to estimate unsaturated soil properties require further improvement to take into account the impact of different conditions of stress. Perhaps the findings of this study may be helpful in providing appropriate data to clarify the combined hydro-mechanical actions of unsaturated silt soil in the practise of geotechnical engineering.

Author(s) Details

Paul Habasimbi
Graduate School of Engineering, Ashikaga University, Omae Ashikaga Tochigi, Japan.

Prof. Tomoyoshi Nishimura
Department of Civil Engineering, Ashikaga University, Omae Ashikaga Tochigi, Japan.

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An Illustrative Study of Surface Radio Refractivity in Awka, South Eastern Nigeria | Chapter 2 | International Research in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 7

This work uses meteorological parameters of surface air temperature, pressure and relative humidity obtained from 2013-2014, respectively, to investigate the radio refractivity over Awka, South Eastern Nigeria, using Davis weather station vantage pro 2 (with Integrated Sensor Suite, ISS) located near to the ground surface. Data were collected at an interval of 30 minutes continuously for each day during the period. From the data collected, hourly, daily and monthly averages of radio refractivity during dry and wet seasons were determined. The result showed that during the wet season, radio refractivity is greater than during the dry season. This is due to variations in meteorological parameters such as relative humidity and temperature that cause the radio refractivity to vary at different times of the day, while the difference in pressure tends to be negligible. Results of the refractivity gradient, however, show that the propagation conditions have varying degrees of occurrence, with conditions of super-refractivity found to be prevalent during the two-year span. The month of January has the highest refractivity gradient value, while in July there were at least around -63 N-units per km and propagation implications, taking into account that the lower the gradient (that is, the more negative), the more super refractive the troposphere is, and the better the conditions of propagation. For radio engineers, the findings obtained from this work are useful for enhancing VHF/UHF terrestrial connections based on clear-air considerations. The study of this work showed that the surface refractivity over Awka for the two-year cycle showed seasonal fluctuations with high rainy season values and low dry season values. Unlike the wet season refractivity, which had limited variability, the dry season was extremely variable. The propagation situation will often be super-refractive for radio wave propagation in Awka and nearby areas. But the month of January had the highest refractivity gradient value, while July had the least.

Author(s) Details

Ikeh U. Chinelo
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.

Okeke C. Chukwunike
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.

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An Overview of Traditional Urban Fabric and Houses in Kilis/Turkey | Chapter 1 | International Research in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 7

One of the most universally urgent and daunting cultural heritage conservation concerns is actually the conservation of historic urban environments. In this article, conservation is seen as a concept that encompasses a broad range of issues that can be divided into three categories: historic urban fabric, traditional Kilis homes, and lifestyle issues. With its special historical urban fabric and distinctive house plans, Kilis, which has been the birthplace of many civilizations and cultures throughout history, is an outstanding settlement. The area, situated in a transitional climate region, also shines with its traditional local cuisine and varied traditional crafts. The purpose of this study is to provide a thorough overview of the traditional urban fabric, streets, squares, styles of residential plans, including widely used architectural descriptions, and the traditional materials in Kilis. The study also explores the lifestyle in Kilis with regard to the potential of the region. In the discussion and conclusion section, the suggestions concerning how to conserve and sustain the historic urban fabric, the traditional Kilis homes, and lifestyle features are discussed. In short, Kilis is a region of extraordinary features, with its ancient relics of civilization, local handicrafts, sightseeing areas and resorts, natural landmarks, traditional urban fabric, homes, unique lifestyles of people, local cuisine and so on. For these ideals to be retained and for the traditional texture not to be lost, Kilis deserves every possible precaution.

Author(s) Details

Engin E. Eyuboglu
Urban and Regional Planning Department, Faculty of Architecture, ITU, Taksim, Taskısla, Istanbul, 34437, Turkey.

Ozhan Ertekin
Urban and Regional Planning Department, Faculty of Architecture, ITU, Taksim, Taskısla, Istanbul, 34437, Turkey.

Funda Yirmibesoğlu
Urban and Regional Planning Department, Faculty of Architecture, ITU, Taksim, Taskısla, Istanbul, 34437, Turkey.

Reyhan Genli Yigiter
Urban and Regional Planning Department, Faculty of Architecture, ITU, Taksim, Taskısla, Istanbul, 34437, Turkey.

Neslihan Aydin Yonet
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey.

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